Introduction to the systematy of Indian trees

BOTANICAL MEMOIRS. No. la

INTRODUCTION TO THE SYSTEMATY OF
INDIAN TREES

By

A. H. CHURCH, M.A.

iP7^

LAN ^

^•S.C.

HUMPHREY MILFORD

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW COPENHAGEN

NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN

BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS SHANGHAI

1921
Price Two Shillings and Sixpence net

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BOTANICAL MEMOIRS. No. 12

INTRODUCTION TO THE SYSTEMATY OF
INDIAN TREES

By
A. H. CHURCH, M.A.

HUMPHREY MILFORD

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW COPENHAGEN

NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN

BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS SHANGHAI

I 921

CONTENTS

I. Introduction

II. Apocarpous Families

III. CiSTlFLORAE (Dilleniaceae, Bixaceae) .

IV. CiSTIFLORAK (Guttiferae, Dipterocarpaceae)
V. Malvales

VI. DisciFLORAE (Geraniales)

VII. DisciFLORAE (Sapindales) .

VIII. Leguminosae

IX. Calyciflorae

X. Bicarpellatae

XI. I':UCVCLIC GaMOPETALAE: InFERAE .

XII. Apetalae

XIII. MONOCHLAMVDEAE (Urticales)

XIV. MONOCHLAMYDEAE (Cupuliferae, &c.) .

XV. Palmae

XVI. Gramixeae: Gymnosperms

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27

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33

36

39

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45

48

These notes have been arranged for the use of a class in Indian Botany, which
has been held at the Botanic Department for Indian Forestry Probationers during
recent years. Tlie text sufliciently expresses the narrow limitations of the material
and time available ; it has been collected in the present form of 16 lecture-schedules,
as aflfording a working draft for fui ther amplification by students, in view of the bulky
and expensive nature of more official publications : also as being something in hand,
which, however imperfect, may serve as the beginning of a more definitely modern
course of Tropical Botany.

Botanic GARDr.x, Oxi ord, /u/j-, 1921.

Systematy of Indian Trees : Introduction. I.

INDIA comprises a botanical region of essentially Asiatic and tropical con»
tinenlal area, ranging from primary evergreen rain-forest to the limit of Alpine plant-
life at the higher elevations of the Himalya, including sub-equatorial swamps, mountain
rain-forest and the deciduous monsoon-forest of drier central tracts, the vegetation of
grassy plains, estuarine mangrove-formation, sandy sea-coast, savannah and jiark-
lands, as well as tracts of dry arid sandy or stony desert, and affording examples of
all types of tropical vegetation and cultivation.

Such may serve as an introduction to the optimum ecological regions of the
present world, on a scale and of a character wholly distinct from the impoverished
vegetation of more northern latitudes, and the mediocre types of European or indi-
genous flora, which have long served as the elementary review of Systematic Botany.
Under such optimum conditions plant-life may be still dominant, as well as enor-
mously preponderant. IMuch of the area has produced forest continuously tliroughout
known geological lime ; competition and natural selection continue to act on an inten-
sive scale.

Botanical interest centres in forest-formation, as expressing the infinite possi-
bilities of combination of the same generalized features of somatic organization in
response to extreme biological factors as intensive insolation, problems of water and
food-salt supjily, perennation over intense drought, the protection of the reproductive
processes and of the developing seeds, the possibility of dispersal to unoccupied
ground or of active competition in closed formations, and the critical stages of the
successful germination of the embryo, as also of its juvenile condition.

The most characteristic feature is intense insolation, which gives practically
unlimited supplies of pho'osynthetic carbohydrate, in excess of the possible capacity
for further proteid-synthesis, dependent in turn on the food-ions of the water-supply.
Waste polysaccharide is utilized in timber-production and xerophytic protective
mechanism of sclerosed strands and, layers, conspicuous also in massive capsules
or sclerosed indehiscent fruits, as again in the production of starch or hydrocarbon fat
and oil, giving enhanced possibilities of * food-storage ' for embryos in germination, or
again as the sugars and organic acids of large succulent fruits utilized for the dis-
persal of seeds by animal agency.

Increased rates of metabolism follow higher temperatiire. Foliage-leaves may
be reckoned in feet instead of inches, and the same applies to the development of the
annual shoot. Flowers range to huge mechanisms, or may be reduced to the merest
vestiges of economized systems. Pollination by bee-agency is less predominant in
forest-formation ; small mechanisms are associated with flies and insects with short
proboscides ; larger mechanisms grade to moth and bird-visitation.

Water-supply, regarded not only as the essential component of the dilute
medium of livmg plasma, but also as the source of food-ions, is the primary
factor in promoting ecological formations, and determining the evolution of types of
higher grade, according as the supply may be permanent, casual, seasonal, or practi-
cally non-existent. Methods of economizing the available supply become the rule, as
few plants do not feel the strain at some time of the year, day, or of their individual
life. Similarly all advancing stages of the ovary-chamber, which marks the evolution
of the Angiosperm gynoecium, from the primary closing in of free megasporophylls to
phases of syncarpy and the elaboration of the inferior ovary, are to be approached
from this standpoint. The case of the ' green-fruit ' aff"ords conspicuous illustration.
In evergreen rain-forest, flowers and fiuits of the upper exposed levels, competing
with the foliage-leaves for water-supply, present advanced xeromorphic mechanism.
In seasonal deciduous monsoon-forest green fruits subserve seed-protection into the
driest months of the year, with increased devices of osmotic water-storage, sclerosed
layers of massive ovary-wall, packing of the internal cavity with dry or succulent hair-
growths, succulent seed-arils, or lamellar extensions, the i)roduction of terpenes.

3. A 2

glandular hairs, spinous emergences, wing-like shading laminae — all as mechanisms
capable of subsequent utilization, more or less successfully, in the dispersal of fruits
and seeds. Minor examples of such phenomena in trees of Northern latitudes illus-
trate the flict that all such adaptations were originally attained during the rigorous
selection implied in solving the problems of tropical vegetation.

Forest Trees, taken as plants with perennial woody habit, ranging from small
shrubs and climbers to massive limber-trees of high forest, are scheduled at 4,400
sj^cics (Brandis, 191 1). those giving appreciable timber at 1,450 (Gamble, 1902), as
economically significant to liic forester, 300 (Troup, 19 13), and at least 200 may be
regarded as generally important.

Systematy : For purposes of cataloguing and ready reference, plants are classi-
fied in groups and sections (phyla), to families, genera, and species, the main outlines
of whicli are still more or less empirical and largely traditional, though aiming at
a ' Natural System ' ; i. e., one expressing genetic relationship. The recognition of
even a ' species ' is still arbitrary, and all classification may be regarded as provisional.
The morphological organization of the flower, fruit, and seed, as including the com-
plex processes of racial nuchanisvi of reproduction, is generally utilized ; since this
covers the elaborate provision for the specialization of the floral shoot-system and its
mechanism, as concerned with : — (i) the essential process of cross-pollination, or the
approximation of the microspores to the vicinity of the megasporangium of the sporo-
phyte-phase ; (2) the elaboration of the ovary-chamber as the special feature of the
Angiosperm ; (3) the mechanism of seed and fruit-formation as allotted to post-
sexual nutrition and the care of the embryo ; and (4) the structures associated with the
dispersal, perennation, and germination of the seed. So complex and inter-related
are the adaptations for these several functions, taken singly or in combination, that
the somatic organization of the general vegetative and arboreal growth, its morpho-
logy and relation to insolation and desiccation, as expressing the more immediate
relation of the individual to its present environment, become of relatively subsidiary
importance. Such data may be still significant in lesser degree ; since though they
are equally the ecological inheritance of past ages, they appear on the whole less con-
ser\'ative in obscure mechanism, through which may be traced older factors in the
evolution of flowering and seed-plants of more remote epochs.

Systems of Classification, though now admittedly aiming at phyletic presenta-
tion, are not to be criticized too strictly in this direction. A ' System ' is the official
presentation of the subject at any given time, with which the individual botanist has
little to do. Cataloguing and bookkeeping have to be maintained as a common
standard of reference. The limitations of species, genera, and families are commonly
accepted, though subject to minor sources of error ; these become the units of
systematy. Official systems only differ as they reflect more modern outlooks for
regarding the grouping and terminology of the larger sections. The arrangement of
the latter in any linear sequence for book-presentation is largely a matter of con-
venience and convention.

Natiiral Classification aims at the arrangement which may most clearly visualize
the phylelic progression of different races ; but the life of every higher plant involves
the balanced compromise in the solution of quite a number of distinct problems, each
requiring a set of complex specialized mechanism, adapted from the remains of past
mechanisms of older phases of existence. Hence every race, genus, and species may
show independently combined lines of evolutionary progression, or even of lieteriora-
tion, in many different directions differently, or at unequal rates. No very primitive
or archaic plant can l)e now in existence : all may be highly organized in different
respects, or present different horizons of attainment in the same calei^ory. All systemaiy
thus ends in being artificial to some extent, and convenience is more important than
pedantic discussion; after all, systematy is made for the advance of scientific botany.
not vice versa, and classification can no longer be regarded as an end in itself.

The Modern System, based on the Natural Systemofjussieu (1789), extended

.4

by De Candolle (1818-73), lias been ofllcially organized in the Gcmra Plantanim
of Bentham and Hooker (Kew, 1862-83), ^"^^ further emended and extended in the
Pnanzenfaniilien of Engler and Pranil (Berhn, 18S9-1908). Pending a further
revision of the whole field by an acceptetl and competent authority, the text of the
last stands as the ultimate appeal.

For purposes of general investigation a method of Plant Desci-iption is required,
expressed in concise and readily intelligible phraseology, a method of interpretation of
floral construction in terms of a Floral Diagram, and again as scale-drawings in
Sectional Elevation : in addition, data for lime-factors, and details of the working
mechanism in relation to insects and other external agencies, the structural details of
the fruit, and the biology of seed-dispersal. INIuch of the older literature is expressed
in obsolete terminology which reflects antiquated points of view. Hence new descrip-
tions, in plain English, new figures, and especially accurate data for floral biology and
general ecology are urgently required ; and the field is limitless.

The Genera Plantarum of Kew, though obsolete botanically, is still largely
official for British Government Departments. For present purposes the compromise
adopted by Brandis (191 1) will be followed as far as possible; this being so far the
official presentation for Indian foresters. Large, well-differentiated petaloid flowers
are conveniently dealt with first ; smaller reduced, or more elementary forms present-
ing greater difficulty, may be taken later. Hence Polypelalous Thalamiflorae are
followed by Eucyclic Disciflorae, and these by Calyciflorae. The Gamopetalae
(' Sympetalac ') in turn by iMonochlamydeae which comprise a mixture of some possibly
more archaic types with many undoubtedly reduced and secondarily ' apetalous '.
Monocotyledons, as of minor arboreal importance are left till last, though containing
phyla of extremely divergent and advanced organization ; and some reference is made
to Gymnosperms.

Though often minimized in Modern Botany, a practical acquaintance with
a wide range of Angiospermous plants, their nomenclature and classification, is still
an integral part of the equipment of every working botanist ; as an intimate know-
ledge of the living plant in all iis phases and mechanism is the only sure basis for all
economic or technological exploitation of available natural resources of the plant-
kingdom, on which the human race is still wholly dependent. The broader lines of
geographical ecology, as also methods of culture and the utilization of economic pro-
ducts, are referred to standard text-books on Indian forestry: —

For General Literature, cf. : —
Brandis (191 1), Indian Trees.
Gamble (1902), A INIanual of Indian Timbers.
Troup (19 13), Indian Forest Udlization.
Troup (1921), The Silviculture of Indian Trees.
Schiviper (1903^ Plant Geography, Eng. Trans.
Englcr-PranU (1889-97), Pflanzenfamilien.

For Illustrations, cf. the older floras : —

ir/^'/i/ (Madras, 1840-50), Illustrations of Indian Botany, 2 vols.
IF/X''/'/' (Madras, 1840-50), Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, 6 vols.
Roxburgh (1795). Plants of the Coast of Coromandel, 3 vols.
Beddome (Madras), The Flora Sylvaiica for Southern India, 2 vols.
Wallich (1830), Plantae Asiaticae Rariores, 3 vols.

Brandis (1874), Illustrations of the Forest Flora of North-West and Central
India.

An,s:iosperms : Diioi : Polypct : 'riialamifl : Polycarpioac. II,

APOCARPOUS FAM ILI ES are usually approached from the standpoint of
the Ranunculaccae (27/ 1200) of tlie N. Temp., but these are typically herbaceous
types and are wanting in tropical forest: Clematis (170) alone is woody, including
liana-forms climbing by leaf-petioles : cf. C. montona of Himalya, climber flowering
in spring on short spur-shoots ; flowers 2-3 in. diam. ; perianth-segments 4 (5-6),
white; stamens 100-130; carpels 40-50, each with i functional ovule and rudiments
of others; fruit as a cluster of achenes, i-seeded, with long hairy style enlarged and
assisting in wind-dispersal. C. lanuginosa, China, with many vars. and hybrids
(Hort.); Ilowers large, solitary, terminating spring shoots, 6-8 in. diam.; per. seg.
6-8, pale violet-blue; stamens 100-200, carpels 100-120; fly pollinated, with large
achenes and long style persistent.

Maguoliaceae (9 100), essentially a family of tropical and sub-tropical trees,
founded i8i8. Ihese afford the nearest approximation to the general conception of
what primitive Angiospermous flowering trees may have been in the past ; hence
appropriately begin the system.

General fea/itres ; leaves large and simple, with a sheathing slipule-construc-
tion enclosing the next younger members. Flowers solitary and terminating the
foliage-shoot, usually large and conspicuous, hermaphrodite, spirally constructed
and indefinite. Perianth trimerous, of the type 3 -|- 3 -f- 3 ; Floral receptacle elongated
and presenting distinct zones ; Androecitim of many stamens, separated from the
gynoecium of numerous free carpels; the latter each reduced to a small ovary with 2
or more ovules, and with prolonged stigmadc tip. Usually protogynous and pollinated
on first expansion by flies. Fruit ranging from dry dehiscent follicular type (usually
dehiscing by the outer edge) to achenes ; seeds with a small embryo in endosperm
storing fatty oil.

As available forms cf. : —

Magnolia conspicua of Japan (Hort.), flowering on the bare branches March,
April, 3-4 in. diam., perianth-segments white ; stamens 50-60, with massive filaments ;
floral receptacle to 30 mm. long ; carpels 60, each 2 ovules ; mechanism markedly
protogynous, not setting fruit (Hort.).

M. grandiflora of N. Amer., 60-80 ft. (Hort, in vars.); leaves large, evergreen,
coriaceous, stipule 3 in. : Flowers 6-8 in. diam., strongly scented, fly-pollinated ;
often semi-double ; stamens about 60, carpels 50 ; seeds 1-2, the compact dry set
(3-4 in.) of pods (30 mm.) dehiscing by external margin as well as by inner suture.

Liriodendron Tulipifei'a, Tulip 'i'ree of N. Amer. and W. China, Hort. ; hand-
some tree, 160 ft. and 8-10 diam., with deciduous characteristically 4-lobed leaves,
and broad flat adpressed stipule pair, if in. ; Flowers (June) solitary, 3 in., per. seg.
greenish-yellow with red flush, stamens 40, carpels 100 ; fruit as indehiscent samaroid
achenes with wing-prolongation, 2\ in., 1-2 seeded.

Indian forms include species of Magnolia chiefly from Himalyan regions.

Magnolia Campbelli, a large deciduous tree of E. Himalya ; flowers on bare
wood in manner of J\l. conspicua, 6-10 in. diam., white or rose-coloured, fragrant;
perianth segs. 12-15-, fruiting gynoecium elongated to 6-8 in., woody carpels,
12 mm., dehiscing along outer edge, seeds usually i, red, 10 mm.

Michelia excelsa, a tall deciduous tree of E. Himalya (Darjeeling) ; flowers
while, 4 in. diam.; per. seg. 12, trimerous or tetramerous ; stamens 100-120, carpels
50-60, on a receptacle 13 mm. long, spaced 5 mm. from androecium ; ovules 3-4,
stigma hooked ; Fruiting portion elongated 4-8 in., lax, with follicular carpels, f in.,
dehiscing on outer edge ; seeds 10 mm., with red sarcotesta, taken by birds.

Cf. M. Chantpaca,z. large evergreen tree of Fl. Sub-Himalya and W. Ghats, much
cult. ; Flowers 2-3 in. diam., fragrant ; per. segs. 15, yellow-orange ; fruiting recep-
tacle erect, extending to 3-6 in.; dry follicles ovoid, 20 mm., dehiscing by outer
margin, seeds 3-5, 10 mm., with pink sarcotesta.

6

Also note Talauina lIodgsoni\i\ Hill-forest, Nepal, more generalized in gynoecium ,
in fiuit this becomes an erect and massive conoid aggregate, 4-6 in., with woody
carpels (100 or more), dehiscing normally by 'ventral' suture, and coming away
from the axis.

Anonaceae (46/800), based on American forms of A/io/ia (1808), and extended
to a wide range of trees essentially of tropical forest, with simple leaves, exstijiulale.
Flowers usually hermaphrodite and trimerous in perianth, of the type 3 'sepals',
3 + 3 ' petals ', giving floral mechanisms of high specialization, fly-pollinated ' chamber-
types ', often large and highly-coloured. The floral receptacle is usually condensed ;
the androecium of indefmite stamens with irregular arrangement as a platform of
anther-facets ; gynoecium indefinite of free carpels, the ovary-region reduced, and a
specialized stigmatic surface. In fruit the carpels enlarge, with great range, often
long-stalked, i -seeded or many-seeded, succulent or woody. The seeds are large,
with small embryo in a conspicuously ruminated endosperm.

Wholly distinct from Magnoliaceae in fruit and seed-organization, convergent in
elementary floral construction with trimerous perianth and small stamens and carpels
closely compacted to a platform-mechanism, pollinated in a half-closed bud condition.
Indian genera 15, including Sacfopda hi m and JMiliusa of deciduous forest, Polyalthia,
Unona, Cvan'a, A nana. In the most characteristic floral mechanism the valvate
'petals' close in over the essential organs to constitute a damp protected chamber,
access to which is permitted by slits or windows left between the petals. The original
dehiscent fruit is seen in Anaxagorea zeylanica, a mere shrub ; in others it is in-
dehiscent, and each carpel tends to be sclerosed to a sub-spherical nut-like body,
often long-stalked ; a ' head ' of fruits being in such case produced from one flower
{Polyalthia). In Anona the entire aggregate of carpels may become coalescent and
succulent, giving an edible many-seeded massive fruit; cf. A. squamosa, Sweet-Sop,
cult, in tropics; flowers small greenish, 2 in., perianth of type 3 -1- 3 -f- 3 ; aggregate of
stamens hemispherical ; the fruiting gynoecium enlarges to 2-4 in. diam., with seeds
in soft succulent pulp: also A. muricata. Sour Sop, with pointed carpel-facets, A.
reticidaia, Custard Apple, also cult., fruit with pentagonal facets.

Canangium odoratum, evergreen tree, 30-60 ft., of E. Indies, commonly
cult. ; flowers in racemes of 2-6, drooping on long stalks : calyx of 3 sepals reflexed,
corolla 3-h 3. petals to 3 in. long, yellow, very fragrant and convergent over floral apex
to an approximate chamber, ultimately lax. Androecium of about 200 stamens,

2 mm., closely compacted to a bution-like mass, 10 mm. across; connective-apex as
a spike. Gynoecium of 10-12 carpels; ovary-region with many ovules, and the
stigmatic ends enlarged and fused to a central stigmaiic head. Mechanism proto-
gynous, fly-pollinated. Fruit a cluster of hard black 'berries' 20 mm., with slight
sarcocarp, each containing 6-10 seeds with ruminated endosperm.

Groniothalamus GrifB.thii, a small tree of the South and Burma, with typical
flowers : sepals 3 ovate, 9 mm. ; petals 3 -f 3, the outer whorl massive, 3 in., leathery ;
the 3 inner alternating, 2 mm. thick below, 20 mm. long, cohering by valvate edges
(with interlocking papillae) to a club-shaped chamber over the essential organs, leav-
ing at the base 3 window-apertures (5 mm.) to the interior. Androecium of about
100 stamens, 3 mm., closely packed. Gynoecium of about 20 carpels, free, closely
packed on flat receptacle-apex ; ovary 3 mm., with ovules 4-5 seriate; style bent,

3 mm., with stigmatic flap. In fruit the carpels are 1-2 seeded, giving indehiscent
berry-like structures on stalks, i in.

Saccopetalum tomentosum {Uvan'a), a large tree in Sal forest and South :
flowers 2-3 in. long. Fruiting carpels dark-purple, i in. diam., on -^ in, stalks,
3-4 seeded.

Miliusa velutina, a tree of C. India and Sub-Himalya, 3 inner petals long,
silky and velvety externally, dark-purple inside. Fruit a rounded cluster of stalked
carpels, each -^ in. diam.

Polyalthia longifolia, a tree of S. India, planted in avenues ; flowers yellowish-
green, in umbellate clusters ; ripe carpels ^ in. on ^ in. stalks.

Cfiona discolor, shrubby; flowers greenish-yellow, 1-2 in.; carpels clustered in
fruit, on long stalks, i^ in., purple and elongated, 2-5 seeded, and constricted between
the seeds. Species of Unona and i'van'a tend to become climbers.

Of Orders in which the floral organization, though apocarpous, tends to be
reduced to minimum constructions in terms of trimery and small size, note : —

Menispermaceae (56 .^60), a family of characteristically stem-twining climbing
shrubs, with panicles of numerous small flowers of the type, perianth 3 -f- 3, the stamens
reduced to 3-I-3, and the carpels 3 or i, with usually one ovule per carpel. The
fruits are drupaceous, to -^ in. diam. The woody stems commonly present anomalous
organizaiion of the lianoid-type with broad med. rays, and recurrent cambiums, cf.
Cocculiis, Cissaniptlos.

Berberidaceae (8 150), based on the European Berber is, present trimerous
flowers with ovary of i carpel, but with several basal ovules .• the anthers dehisce by
2 'valves'. Fruit a berry with i or more seeds. Several Indian sp. (14) in Hill-
forest as shrubs. B. vulgaris in N\V. Himalya, &c.

A small series of aberrant forms, Lardizabalaceae, monoecious, anthers not
valvate, carpels 1-3, apocarpous, ovules over inner surface of wall, cf. : —

Akebia quinata, a pretty liana-form (Hort.), with 5-lobed foliage-leaves, and
flowers (April) diclinous, trimerous, dull purple, in simple racemes. Carpellary
flowers few, below and larger; per. seg. 3, carpels 3-I-3 (varying), distinctly apo-
carpous, wiih many ovules. Staminate flowers small and numerous; per. seg. 3,
reflexed, stamens 3-f-3, anthers dehiscing by slits.

For the Lauraceae, with limiting cases of dicliny, dimery, apetaly, and carpellary
flower with i carpel and i ovule, but comparable valvate anthers, cf. ' Apetalous
families ', p. 36.

Angiosp : Dicot : Polypet : Thalamifl : Cistiflorae. I. III.

CIST I FLORAE in die wider sense convcnienily include a vast range of types
in which the fully petaloid flower aitatns a normal pentamerous calyx and an appar-
ently whorled corolla ; the androecium remains wholly indefinite, but the gynoecium
becomes sjncarpotis, either by a gamocarpous zone to constitute a new unilocular
ovary-chamber with parietal placcntatiou, or by pocket-formations to a plurilocular
condition with placcntation axik, or ultimately basal. The carpels remain vestigial
as mere stigmatic lobes, or may be wholly lost. Forms with unilocular ovary and
parietal placcntation may be conveniently taken first (cf. Cohort Parictales, Gen.
Plant., 1862).

In N. Temp, flora the series is commonly approached by the tmall group of
Cistaceae (4 160) on which ii was originally founded, based on the Mediterranean
forms of Cistus \ and again from the sj)ecialized families of the Rhoeadincae, more
particularly as familiar in the special limiting cases of the Crucifer and Poppy.

The alternative line of progression with axile placentaiion, familiar in Hyperi-
caceae, may be extended to the great tree-families of Gutiiferac, Ternstroemiaceae,
Dipterocarpaceae.

The Malvales alliance may be considered separately. Probably the oldest phase
of the progression is to be traced in Dilleniaceae which remain predominantly apo-
carpous, and hence come at an early stage in older classifications \Gen. Platit., 1862).

I. The Dilleniaceae (11 '300), commemorating Dillenius, professor at Oxiord,
1734-47, founded 1818, based on the remarkable type : —

Dillenia indica, a middle-sized tree of moist regions, cult., with large evergreen
serrated foliage-leaves, and fine solitary white flowers, 6-10 in. diam. ; sepals quin-
cuncial, thick and fleshy; petals 5, flimsy and fugitive; stamens indef., all alike and
inarching; carpels in a single cycle, 15-20, fused along the massive conoidal recep-
tacle, but free laterally, essentially apocarpous, with many ovules. The free white
styles are linear and recurve over the golden-yellow androecium.

In fruit the gynoecium enlarges with the growth of the seeds (8 mm.) with little
change ; the massive sepals close over the carpels to give a succulent acid mass,
4-6 in. diam., and more than i in. thick over the enclosed carpels and seeds. Float-
ing on water, eaten by elephants, but essentially for xerophytic protection of seeds on
ground in hot season ; seeds in protective mucilage ; germination on the ground in
situ, assisted by ants.

■ D. pentagyna, a small tree of deciduous forest, 60-70 ft. ; foliage-leaves 2-4 ft.
Flowering in !March, April, before the leaves : flowers yellow, i in. diam.. in clusters
from tuberous spurs on the older wood ; reduced in number of parts ; androecium of
indef. outer stamens, erect and extrorse. with inner series of 10 recurved anthers on
longer filaments. Gynoecium of 5 (6) carpels, free laterally, on a steeply conical
receptacle, ovules numerous ; styles free, long and reflexed over androecium. Fruit
with persistent sepals, i in., orange-yellow, taken by birds, similarly enclosing soft
jndehiscent carpels, each maturing i seed.

Cf. D. scadrella, xery similar, flowers i^ in. diam.; androecium of about 100
stamens, outer series 90, inner 10-12 reflexed over preceding; gynoecium of 5-6
carpels, free laterally, but cutting in transverse section as if with axile placcntation
owing to elongation of receptacle. Flowers give pollen only and are nototribal to
insects crawling over the lower extrorse anthers.

II. Bixaceae (4/20) a small order separated from Cistaceae by the leaves being
spirally arranged instead of decussate, based on the monotype —

Bixa Orellana, a shrub, indig. to Central America and cult. (Arnatto). Flowers
1-2 in. diam., white or pink, of generalized Cistifloral habit. Petals flmisy, i in. ;
stamens 200-300, with slender filaments as tassel-cluster, on a distinct collar-zone
around the ovary. Gynoecium syncarpous, of 2 median carpels ; the ovary, 3 mm.,
covered with emergences ; style stout, 1 3 mm., ovules many, on 2 parietal placentas.

9

Flowers offer pollen only ; fruit a large dry bristly capsule (40 mm. by 30) opening by 2
valves along commissural lines. Seeds 20-25 on each placenta, with red succulent
investment of papillose testa : endosperm stores starch.

Cochlospermxim Gossypium. a small xleciduous tree with soft spongy wood,
of dry stony iiill-tiacls, the leaves large and palmalely lobed, and flowers yellow,
4-5 in. diam. (suggestive of Cot ion-plant). Stamens about 150, and 5 deep, on
slender filaments : ovary sub-globular, 6 mm., unilocular wiih 5 enlarged placentas,
each with several rows of ovules (in the manner of a Popjiy). Style slender, project-
ing beyond the stamen-cluster. In fruit the ovary enlarges to a fragile pear-shaped
capsule, 3-4 in., and the seeds are clothed with long silky packing hairs, wind-
dispersed. A remarkable xerophyiic type, convergent with Gossypium of Malvales.

Reduced forms with dioecism have been referred to Flacourtiaceae (70/500),
of :—

Flacoxirtia Eamontchi, a small tree of dry hill districts, with thorny branches
and small deciiluous loliage-leaves. Staminate flowers small and apetalous; sepals
4-5. stamens indefinite, w'ith a glandular extra-staminal disc-nectary and no ovary.
Carpellary flower with ovary of 5-1 1 carpels, placentas meet in centre. Fruit an
edible drupe, \ in., dark-red, pyrenae in two tiers, bird-dispersed.

Hydnocarpus Wightiana, a tall tree of moist forest of W. Ghats and S. India:
flowers white, i in. diam., dioecious and irregular in construction ; stamens 5, stigmas
and parietal placentas 3-6. In fruit the ovary enlarges to a spherical hard and
woody shell, 2-4 in. diam., indehiscent, with many large irregular seeds, | in., with
oily endosperm.

Taractogaws Kiirzii may be included in the same genus.

III. Capparidaceae (34/450) includes some woody shrubs and climbers by
stipular thorns. Flowers tetramerous in calyx and corolla, and more or less zygo-
morphic. Originally based on the Mediterranean —

Capparis spinosa, Caper, cult.; corolla ciuciform, large and showy, 2-3 in.,
white and {)ink later : fugacious, butterfly pollinated with tassel gf stamens (60-1 20).
The ovary is extended beyond the anthers on a \ox\^ gynophore (50 mm.), and there is
no style : gynoecium based on 6-8 carpels, with prominent parietal jjlacentas meeting
in centre of cavity. Fruit 1-3 in., seeds imbedded in pulpy sepia. A highly special-
ized type in floral construction and biology; as in the parallel Crucifer, the carpels
are obsolete and the siigma-lobes commissural and secondary-.

Cr. C. aphylla, a small iree (20 ft.) of dry regions; flowers red; i in. over
all ; leaves small and shed in hot season. Fruit a red succulent berry, \ in. diam.,
on gynophore stalk, i in., taken by birds.

C. horrida, scrambling by thorns in hedges, and to a great height. Flowers
pink or while, 1-2 in. diam., produced en masse. Fruit globose, i in. diam.

Crataeva religiosa, a small deciduous tree (50-60 ft.) in damp situations and
cult. ; flowers of typical Capparid habit, pink or yellow, in short terminal racemes,
2 in. diam. : the diagonal petals reflexed posteriorly in zygomorphic presentation ;
androecium of 12-20 stamens, filaments 35 mm.; mechanism sternotribal : gynoe-
cium based on 2 carpels, placentas meet in centre and bear many rows of ovules ;
gynophore bent forward, 35 mm.: nectary-' disc ' as cup-formation, 8 mm. diam.
Fruit a sub-globular ' berry', indehiscent, many-seeded, 1-2 in. diam., with hard rind.

I\'. Moringaceae (1/3) a small order founded for: —

Moi'inga pterygosperma, a small deciduous tree of Sub-Himalya forest-zone,
much cull. : leaves large, bipinnate, with small leaflets; flowers in panicled systems,
of highly specialized type, in the manner of Capparids but pentamcrous with a long
style. ^larkedly zygomorpliic, with nololribal mechanism, i in. diam., white doited
yellow, fragrant. Stamens 10-12; 3 posterior togeiher with 4 alternating staminodes,
unite below to a shield-piece over ovary. Gynoecium a stalked pod from the base of
the perigynous receptacle-cup, 4 mm., uniloc, with 3 parietal placentas and many
ovules. Style 4 mm., and stigma with 6 minuie lobes. Fruit a long pendulous pod,

10

9-1 8 in., dehiscing by 3 valves loculicidally. with a single series of large seeds with
3-angled wing-edges, very characteristic, and no endosperm.

V. Tamarieaceae (5/100) foumled on Tamarix of S. Europe, as xerophytic
and halophyiic small trees, witli foliage reduced to small adpressed scale-leaves.
Flowers very small, white or pink, in panicled spicate racemes : cf. :—

Tamarix gallica of sandy sea-shore (INIedii.), Hort. ; flowers typical, pentame-
rous, 5 mm. over all; petals pinkish; stamens 5, with a lo-lobed ' disc "-nectary ;
gynoecium of 3 carpels, with 3 free stigmatic lobes, unilocular cavity, and ovules
from 3 basal placentas: in fruit the ovary becomes a small capsule (5 mm.), dehiscing
by 3 valves along commissural lines, and the ;-eeds utilize a 'coma ' of silky packing-
hairs from the chalazal region for wind-dispersal : germinating rapidly on damp
ground, but with little vitality.

T. Troupii, the common sp. in India (Baluchistan) to 30 ft., gregarious on
alluvial tracts, essentially similar. T. indica, halophytic (Sundrihans).

T. articulata, a middle-sized tree (60 ft. and 2 ft. diam.) of dry regions and
inundated land, withstanding extreme range of temperature and drought. End-
ramuli shed : flowers loosely panicled on long slender spikes : stamens 5, carpels 3,
capsule 3 mm.

II

Aii^ii)>p: Dicol : Polvpet : Tlialamifl : Ci-^tiflorae, 11. IV.

A divergent series of the Cistifloral alliance segregating families in which the
pynoecium jircsents predominant axi'le placetifaiion, while the residual carpels are
retaincil as free st}les, stigmaiic lobes, or may be wholly suppressed. Several large
urdcrs of tropical trees, with special characters in other respects arc provisionally
includeil.

I. Guttiferae (4,3 '820), including Ilypericaceae of N. Temp. : otherwise essen-
tially of tropical evergreen forest witli characteristic gum-resins, and the vegetative
shoots with opposile and entire foliage-leaves. The flowers are large and solitary,
or small and panicled, ranging to extreme phases of the type of tetramery, dicliny,
reduction of ovules per loculus, to the limit of output of one seed per flower. The
fruits are commonly indchiscent, dry, or drupaceous ; but in some cases dehiscing
capsules are slill retained, cf. : —

. Hypericum calycinum (Hort.), giving a good idea of the full t\ pe of floral
organization (as available indigenous species of the genus illustrate reduction in size
and numbers of carpels and stamens). Large blossoms 4 in. diam., terminate woody
shoots with persistent, simple, gland-dotted foliage-leaves, more or less D.V. in
habit by the twisting of internodes alternately :

F/oivers actinomorphic, pentamerous, hypogynous ; calyx of 5 sepals,
obviously quincuncial : corolla of 5 flimsy yellow petals, convolute in prefloration ;
each with notch, firm outside edge in bud, and crumpled inner lobe : tassel-type
of flower giving polkn only : Androecium of 500 stamens, in 5 distinct antipetalous
groups shed separately; filaments slender, 25 mm., anthers small: ovary conoidal,
ID mm., of 5 carpels, with free styles, 15 mm., diverging among the stamens,
aniisepalous: stigmas presented at same distance from axis as the pollen: ovary
5-locular; placentation axile below (parietal above apex of floral axis), with T-headed
placentas meeting in centre, and many small ovules. Capsule 20 mm., dehiscing
in uj)per portion by 5 valves (each taking a style); seeds 2 mm., with small straight
embryo, and endosperm storing fat.

Garcinia Mangostana, as a diclinous variant (genus of 180 sp.): evergreen
tree, 60 ft., with coriaceous leaves, in general tiop. cult. (INIangosieen). Flowers
solitary, axillary, or 1-2. Staminate flower rare. Carpellary plant cult, and self-
setting : usually tetramerous in ( alyx and corolla, 2 in. diam., ovary 5-8 locular,
stigma peltalely lobed : seeds in white pulp of dark-purple fruit with thick resinous
hard lind, 2-3 in. diam.

G. Morella, S. Ind. and Ceylon, cult, for gum-resin (Gamboge), cf. G. Hatibutyi',
of Siam : flowers small, greenish-white, f in. diam., diclinous and tetramerous;
staminate flower with a short 4-sided ' column ', bearing many short-stalked mono-
thecic anthers : carpellary flower with staminodes and a 4-loc. ovary : fruit | in. diam.,
with 4 seeds.

Calophyllum Inophyllum, evergreen tree of S. Ind. coast-forest, cult. ; leaves
entire, ellijitic, shining coriaceous, with closely parallel lateral veins: flowers diclinous,

1 in. diam., cream-white and fragrant, tetramerous: staminate flower with stamens in
4-6 clusters and aborted ovary : carpellary flower similar in diagram, 2 inner sepals
larger. Staminal ' bundles ' antipet. ; ovary of 2 carpels, with 2-lobed stigma and
cavity uniloc, with one basal anatropous ovule. Fruit a yellow drupe, i^ in. diam.,
taken by bats, &c.

C. elatum {tomtniosum) Poon Spar tree of S. Ind., to 150 ft., evergreen forest of
W. Ghats. Flowers ui panicles, 2 inner sepals petaloid.

Poeciloneuron indicum, of S. Ind. evergreen forest, more or less gregarious.
Flowers pentamerous, stamens 16-20, anthers remarkably 6-10 septate in loculi
transversely : ovary of 2 carpels, 2 ovules in each loculus. Fruit f in. dehiscing by

2 valves, I -seeded.

Mesua ferrea, evergreen forest-tree of E. Bengal and Assam, much planted :

T2

Flowers large white and Ct'sius-like, wiih golden-yellow tassel of anthers, but
ietrameroHs ; stamens to r.ooo on collar-growth: ovary of 2 carpels, 2-locuIar,
2 ovules basal in each loculus. Fruit i in., woody, 2 valved, shedding 1-4 seeds.

II. Ternstroemiaceae (Theaceae, 16/200). A series of more generalized
types, the Cisiitloral flowers being associated with older spiral leaf-arrangement,
the leaves simple, serrate, without stipules, and the plants without resin-glands
(leaves not gland-dotted).

Camellia Thea, Tea, a shrub or small tree of Assam, planted Ceylon, &c.,
leaves 1-2 in., flowers while, \ in., singly in leaf-axils, pentamerous ; stamens 50 or
so; gynoecium of 3 carpels with 3 styles and i ovule in each of 3 loculi. Capsule
3-angled, dehiscent loculicidally, seeds 3, not winged. Cf. Tcnislroemia japonica,
a large deciduous tree of Hill-forest ; Eurya, dioecious with indehiscent fruit ;
Gordonia with winged seeds.

Schima Walliohii, semi-gregarious in Hill-forest, N. Bengal, 80-100 ft.,
leaves 4-6 in. : flowers of 77/eY7-type, 2 in. diam. Capsule -| in., with 3 ^-in. flat
winged seeds.

III. Dipterocarpaceae (16/325), a family of fine timber-trees of Indo-JNIalay,
with representative species, many more or less gregarious. Leaves spirally arranged,
stipulate; inflorescence as multibranched panicles with cymose terminals (mono-
chasia) : flowers pentamerous, calyx quincuncial with heterodromy ; corolla convolute
in prefloration; androecium of r)-io o'' many stamens; gynoecium of 3 carpels,
ovary 3-locular with axile placentation and 2 ovules in each loculus, but i seed only
sets in the normally indehiscent fruit. Cotyledons massive, storing fat, and remaining
in the seed at germination. The characteristic new feature is the manner in which
2. 3, or 5 sepals, are extended to laminae which are utilized for spinning the fruits.

Shorea robusta, Sal, gregarious, dominant and characteristic of Central India and
NE. in deciduous forest, on two sides of Gangetic plain ; to 120 ft. ; the Dipterocarp
farthest north, flowering in masse when partially leafless, IMarch.

Inflorescence as terminal and axillary panicles, 6 in. ; ultimate monochasia with
flowers 'sessile', 15-18 mm. over all: sepals 3 mm., with soft grey hairs; petals
convolute, 10 mm., dull orange-yellow with soft pubescence, fugitive: androecium
of about 30 free stamens, 3 deep ; filainents 3 mm., with broad sheathing base and
anthers with awl-like connective-process as a trigger-mechanism, pollen-dusting ; no
specialized nectary. Gynoecium of 3 carpels ; ovary sub-globular, 2 mm., style simple,
stigma 3-lobed ; 2 anatropous ovules in each loculus.

In Fruit the 5 sepals increase in size; i, 2, and 3, much more than the others,
to 2-3 in. long, each with 10-15 parallel main veins, as photosyntheiic and pro-
tective to green fruit, utilized later for dispersal mechanism, by strong winds (June):
germination hypogeal and immediate.

Cf. Representative Species, essentially similar in flower and fruit, 6". Ttimbuggaia
in Cuddapah ; ^. Talura in. W. evergreen forests of Kanara ; S. Assamica, Makai,
in Assam ; S. obtusa, Burma, &c., also sp. in Borneo, Amboina, and Cochin China.

Hopea odorata, a fine tree of Burma, 100-120 ft., Thingan; in moist
tropical forest, non-gregarious, with shining dark-green drooping leaves. Inflor-
escence of similar terminal and axillary panicles, ultimate monochasia of small
greenish-yellow flowers, 10 mm. diam., much as Shorea, but corolla gamopetalous
below and shed with androecium in one piece; petals convolute with frilled ends;
androecium of 15 stamens (in 3 alternating whorls of 5); connective-process as
long as anther (i mm.); gynoecium of 3 carpels, 2 ovules m each loc, one seed sets.
Fruit a small nut, 8 mm., with sepals i, 2, only free and extended to broad wings,
2 in. long, and very characteristic.

Parashorea stellata, evergreen tree, 150 ft., of Martaban and the Malay
Peninsula. Flowers small cream-coloured; sepals and petals velvety ; stamens 15 ;
all 5 sepals equally extended as 'wings' of fruit, 2-3 in. long, the nut velvety and
exposed between their bases.

^3

Pentacme suavis, a large more deciduous tree, gregarious in Upper Burma,
with showy panicles of yellow flowers, f in. over-all, balloon-shaped; stamens 15,
connective and 4 anther-tips equally prolonged as 5 awl-like processes. All the
sepals enlarge in fruit, but r, 2, and 3, are larger, 3 in. ; the fruit, 20 mm., being
exposed between their bases.

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, In (Eng), large gregarious tree, dominant and
characteristic of Bunneso Indaing-forcst on laterite; coriaceous foliage-leaves to
iS in. long and 14 broad, decitluous in hot season. Injlortscence of a few (4-7)
flowers in axillary clusters towards ends of branches, as reduced cymose systems.
Flowers dull-purple, 2 in. across, with contrasting grey tomentose calyx : receptacle
slightly crateriform. Calyx a massive gamosepalous tube, 10 mm., closely investing
the essential organs, with slight commissural ridges. Free segments quincuncial, and
I, 2. to 15-20 mm., the others half as long. Corolla markedly convolute (L in
R-hand flower). Androecitnn of 30 (15 -f 10 -f- 5) stamens, symmetrically spaced;
connective-extension 2 mm. Gyuoeciuvi of 3 carpels ; upper part of ovary massive,
style straight, with 3 minute stigma-lobes. Trigger-mechanism and no obvious
nectary.

\x\ /riiit the style is broken away leaving a stout pointed nul, 20 mm., i-seeded,
with large folded cots., and enclosed in massive woody calyx-tube, i-if in. diam. ; the
wings of seps. i and 2 are 6-7 in. long and i in. broad, 3-veined ; sepals 3, 4, 5, small
and reflexed. The commissural ridges are enlarged and ' tubercled ' above. The
spinning-mechanism depresses the 'wings' on a lo-inch circle. Germination
hypogeal and immediate. An advanced xeromorphic type. Other forms characteristic
of moist, more evergreen tropical forest are :

D. turbinatus, Kanyin, a tall tree (r5o ft.) of mixed forest in Burma, very
similar, but lacks the tubercled commissural ridges, the wings smaller, 5 in. In
D. costa/us and D. alaliis the ridges are greatly exaggerated, and there is much
variation in details of fruit. For representative species cf. D. zeylajiicus of Ceylon,
D. ittdicus of W. Ghats, D. Boiirdilloni of Travancore 150 ft. and 5 ft. diam.,
D. pilosus in damp evergreen forest Assam, with wings "j-g \x\., D. Dyeri, Cochin
China.

Cf also Vatica Roxburghiana, of evergreen forest of S. Kanara and Ceylon ;
fruit subglobose, i-i^ in. diam., woody and hairy, retaining 3 coriaceous sepals,
but not ' winged '.

Valeria indica, evergreen forests of W. Ghats, and cult. ; with gum-resin
(Piny Varnish) : In fruit (2-2^ in.) the sepals are reflexed and dehiscence is by
3 valves. Seeds large and storing fat (Piny Tallow) ; stamens 40-50 ; possibly the
most generalized of the family.

14

Angiosp : Dicot : Polypel: Thalamifl: Malvales. V.

MALVALES include a large section with general Cislifloral characters
combined wiih minor points of higher-grade specialization, remarkably constant,
which may be checked with comparative facility, hence aflbrding convenient clues
to classification : cf. ' valvate ' sepals, a ' column ' type of androecium, nectary-glands
on sepals, and often ' monothecic ' anthers (two-locular). Three great alliances have
been given family status : —

I. The Malvaceae as the key group, with elaborated floral mechanism, including
the full set of characters previously mentioned.

II. The Tiliaceae, a tree family, in which the flowers present simple reduction
variants, which may approximate the more generalized Cisti floral slock.

III. The Sterculiaceae, in which the widest range obtains from high-grade
pollination mechanisms to most reduced (fly-pollinated) limiting expressions.

In N. Temp, regions the series has been approached from the standpoint of
Malva and Tilia of N. Europe. In the Tropics all 3 families attain considerable
importance, not only in floral organization, but as giving fine timber-trees of forest-
formation, as well as economic products, textiles, fruit.

I. Malvaceae (33/900), typically with pentamerous petaloid flowers, actino-
morphic, with ' epicalyx ' of bracteoles, convolute corolla, column-like androecium,
connected with the corolla and shed in one piece, as the complex prolongation of
a festooned androecial tract, with monothecic ' anthers ' producing large spinous
pollen-grains. Carpels in one cycle ; few, large and multiovulate, or many with
I ovule each. Fruit a capsule, dehiscent, or no longer so, or as indehiscent i -seeded
' cocci ', separated from the floral receptacle.

Cf. Althaea rosea. Hollyhock, herbaceous perennial, for fine flowers, 3-4 in.
diam. ; epicalyx 6-lobed, anthers 240-400, monothecic, in antipetalous crests of
double pairs, on a column 20 mm. high; carpels 40-50, each i ovule : fruit separat-
ing dry flat cocci, 8 mm. Malva sylvestris, reduced indig. form, anthers to 80,
carpels to 15.

Gossypium herbaceum, Cotton-plant of Old World. Cult, in annual rota-
tion. Leaves palmate, flowers yellow with purple spot at base, continued in leafy
lateral monochasia ; epicalyx of 3 laciniate segments ; t3'pical column-androecium with
clustered anthers ; carpels 3. ovary syncarpous with many ovules in each loc. ; style
with 3 stigmaiic branches. INIechanism protandrous. Fruit a small capsule (20 mm.)
dehiscing by 3 valves ; seeds packed with hairs (cotton) of testa : endosperm with
fatty oil, small embryo; cf. G. arhoreinn, Trop. Africa, a woody shrub : G. barbadense,
Trop. Amer., seeds with ' long-staple ' hairs. Hibiscus sp. cult., epicalyx of numerous
segments.

Tiiespesia populnea; evergreen tree of littoral forest in Tropics, also planted;
foliage like Poplar, flowers like Gossypium, but epicalyx reduced; carpels 5. stigmas
fused in club-shaped mass. Capsule with silky seeds.

II. Bombaceae (20 140), often separated from Malvaceae by lack of some
characters (no spinous pollen), and greater range in others (column-system more
complex), seeds with little endosperm but large embryos.

Bombax malabaricum, Simal, Silk-Cotton Tree, Huge tree of alluvial
ground, to 130 ft., buttressed trunk, soft wood, conical stem-prickles, large digitately
5-7 lobed leaves, deciduous in hot season. Flowers (Feb.) before the leaves, large,
scarlet, massive, gaudy, bee- and bird-pollinated, 4-6 in. Calyx leathery, splitting
irregularly, with nectary-hairs of type. Androecium in 5 outer bundles of a dozen or
more stout filaments 55 mm., with twisted monothecic anthers, a few intermediate
single filaments, and 5 inner (antisep.) branches each 2-fid with 2 anthers only :
no definite ' column '. Gynoecium 5-locular, with numerous ovules, style 5-lobed.
Fruit a large capsule, 5-6 in.; seeds packed in dense mass of brownish silky hairs
growing from the lining of the wall. Cotyledons much folded.

15

C(. B. itisigne, a large deciduous tree of S. India and Burma : flowers 9 in. diam.,
similarly on old wood; petals scarlet, 5-6 in. ; stamens 400-600, with no definite
column, 5 in. ; fruit capsule 4-8 in.

Eriodendron anfractuosum {Ceiba ptnlatidra); Large deciduous tree of Trop.
Amer. and Mal.\_v, [)lantcd in India and Burma : stems with prickles, leaves digitate :
flowers cream-white ; androecium in 5 segments, simulating stamens, each with
4 twisted anthers ; Gynoecium of 5 carpels ; capsule, 3-5 in., packed with white silky
hairs (KapokV

Adansonia digitata, Baobab of Trop. Africa, cult., to 75 ft. and 20-30 ft.
diam. : trunk massive, water-storing, often hollow, to rooo yrs. old, enormous
tap-root (100 ft. or more). Flowers large, while 6 in., with massive staminal column
and crown of stamens. Fruits large (8-12 in.) pendulous, indehiscent, with large
seeds in acid pulp, with woody fibres, eaten by natives and animals. Seeds 15 mm.,
embryo large and much crumpled, endosperm reduced to a thin film.

Durio zibethinus, Doorian, Malay and cult, in S. ; large fruits, to 12 in. long,
with soft prickles, indehiscent, ofi"ensive smell ; seeds with succulent arils as edible
pulp.

CuUenia excelsa, a large tree of VV. Ghats in damp forest, young shoots and
calyx will) peltate scales. Flowers reddish-brown, apelalous, androecium in 5 fihform
segments, each with about 10 pairs of anther-clusters in longitudinal series; fruit,
3-4 in. diam., 5-locular, densely spinous, each loculus with i large seed with a fleshy
while aril. Cotyledons massive.

III. Sterculiaceae, (48/660) centred on StcrcuUa foelida of tropical coast-
forest: an em[>irical range of types distinguished from preceding by the normal
diihecic (4-I0C.) anthers, the column rudimentary, decadent, or with alternative
gynandrophore region. The valvate caly.\ persists, the stamens are few, the
gynoecium fully syncarpous, or with the carpels united only in a common style-shaft,
and breaking away in fruit to simulate apocarpous follicles. Extreme types may
be apetalous and diclinous : the majority are fly-pollinated (accounting for the
odour).

Pterospermum acerifolium, a tall evergreen tree of hill-forest, and planted :
flowers large, scented; sepals hairy, petals white, 5-6 in., all recurved (moth-
pollinated) : no column, but a gynandrophore-internode (20 mm.), a group of
3 stamens opposite each petal, and 5 long antisep. staminodes (3 in.) and style-shaft;
5 carpels, antipet.. 5 locular. Fruit a particularly massive woody capsule (2-6 in.),
ripening the second season, dehiscing loculicidally, wall woody, \ in. thick; seeds
numerous, with broad spinning-wing 30 mm. long.

Theobroma Cacao, a small tree of S. Amer. (Cocoa), cult. ; flowering spurs on
old wood: flowers small and insignificant, 15 mm. over all, 5-parted ; column
rudimentary, 5 dithecic stamens with anthers sheltered in hooded tips of petals,
alternating with 5 slender pointed ' staminodes '. Fruit a large indehiscent capsule
(8-9 in.), with many large irregular seeds : endosperm scanty, large cotyledons
(cocoa-nibs) store fat.

Sterculia urens, a large tree of dry deciduous forest with conspicuous silvery
bark. Flowers in crowded panicles with tomentum of glandular hairs, apetalous ;
Slaminate flower with 20 stamens on a short internode. Hermaphrodite flowers (few)
with short gynandrophore and 4-5 carpels fused in style-shaft only. Fruit of ovoid
radiating follicular segments, 3 in., red internally, with ' slinging' brisUes : seeds 3-6
per pod.

S. villosa, a common tree in dry deciduous forest ; flowers yellow in clustered
drooping panicles on leafless branches : majority of flowers staminate only : calyx
campanulate, hairy; anthers 10, on short internode. Follicular segments 2-5, coria-
ceous 3 in., red, with stiff" hairs and several blue-black seeds (like Paeonia pods).

S. {= Phrygota) alata, a very large tree of moist evergreen forest: planted:
calyx rusty-tomentose, gamosep. and campanulate: stamens 15, on long internode.

16

Follicular segments, 1-5, huge subglobose pods, 4 in., stalked 3-4 in., seeds in 2 rows,
large and winged, 2|iii.

S. (= Firmi(iiia) colorata, a large ?oft-woodcd tree of Sub-Ilimalya, K., and
S. India ; briglil-red inllorescences of llowers with stellate tomenlum : calyx i in.
long, funnel-shaped, with 5 teeth: gynandrophore long and projecting : stamens small,
carpels 5. In fruit the follicular segments become membranous, leaf}', coloured pink,
and break away with each 2 marginal seeds (in simulation of theoretical carpel).

^. fodida, a deciduous tree with digitate leaves, flowers on bare branches, very
ofTensive ; follicular segments as woody pods, bright-red, many-seeded.

Heritiera littoralis, widely distributed in tropical sea-coast forest, gregarious
and evergreen : panicles of small flowers, apetalous, mostly staminate only, and
much reduced. Leaves coriaceous, silvery underneath. Fiuils as stout, strongly
keeled, i -seeded nuts, e.xalbuminous.

H. Foines, Sundri, gregarious evergreen tree characteristic of Sundribans, on
alluvium behind IMangrove zone : roots with ' tent-peg' pneumatophores : caly.\ 4-5
toothed ; staminate flower with rudiment of gynoecium shows the limit of reduction :
stamens 4-5 : gynoecium of 5 carpels, separating as woody nuts, slightly keeled,
floating at the highest tide-levels.

Cf. H. macrophylla, a large tree of Burma, inland, fruits globose with a ' beak '-
portion and no keel. H. Papilio of W. Ghats in evergreen forest, carpels with
a broad membranous wing, strongly veined.

IV. Tiliaceae (35/350). Forest-trees with flowers of mediocre Cistifloral habit,
but little special mollification — sepals valvate, anthers dithecic, no column — but
stamens often in 'bundles', ovary syncarpous. Fruit tending to indehiscent nut or
drupe. Cf. Tilia^ indig., and Spaniiaimia, Hort.

Corchorus capsularis. Jute (with C. olilorius), herbaceous annual, indig. to
China, cult. Bengal and Assam, valuable fibre (Gunny); S-12 ft., Flowers 1-3,
opposite the leaves, small, yellow, 12 mm. diam., pentamerous ; stamens many, on
a short column; Fruit a sub-globose, longitudinally-ridged capsule, many -seeded;
elongated and beaked in C. olitorius.

Pentace burmaniea, Thitka, large evergreen tree of Hill-forest, Burma ;
Stamens in 5 bundles of 4-7 each, alternating with slender staminodes. Capsule
over I in. long, indehiscent, with 5 broad longitudinal wings, i -seeded.

Berrya Ammonilla, a tall deciduous tree of Burma, &c.; Flowers white, ^in.,
with numerous stamens, no staminodes, ovary 3-4 locular. Fruit a small capsule
with several seeds and 3 pairs of horizontally extending wing-segments, i in. long.

Grewia oppositifolia, a common deciduous tree of W. llimalya, planted;
stamens indefinite on a slight iniernode, Fruit a drupe, deeply 2-4 lobed with same
number of pyrenae, black when ripe ; a large genus, 30 sp. Indian.

Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, typical of a large genus (123, Indian 26) of evergreen
trees of moist iropic.d forest, flowers small with fringed petals: stamens 25-35,
ovary 5-locular : Fruit a globose drupe, i in. diam. with characteristic solid sclero-
carp, grooved and corrugated, commonly i -seeded. E. lanceaefoUus, a large tree
common at Darjeeling.

17

Angiosp : Dii ot : Polvi)et: Thakiniifl : Disciflorac — Geraniales. VI.

DISC I FLORAE [Gi//., Plant. 1862), a convenient assemblage of largely
tree-phyla, characterized by a iucyclic type of floral organization, in which reduction
of tlie androecium to a limit of 5 + 5 in whorled aUernation is typically associated
with the specialization of a receptacular ^//.rc--nectary, usually indicating entomophily
by the agency of insects with short-proboscides (primarily).

The floral organization thus normally presents a quincuncial calyx, a whorled
pentamcrous corolla, two whorls of stamens, and a single whor^ of 5 carpels: the
alternation is not necessarily concurrent throughout the system, and the 5 carpels
are typically antipctalous. The gynoecium may reduce to fewer carpels (4, 3, 2),
rarely increased by irregularity, and the output of ovules may vary within wide limits.
The eucyclic type appears as the symmetrical and complete construction formerly
abstracted empirically by older morphologists as a key to floral evolution.

The construction may present further spaialization for insects of higher grade,
as by zygomorphy (median or oblique), or by attempts at tubular organization in
calyx or androecium. Reduction may occur in phases of tetramery, irregularity
in hexamery, dicliny and dioecism, apetaly, isostemony, and the limitation of gynoecial
output, with a single ovule setting a single seed per flower as the end-term. All
phases of fruit-elaboration obtain, from many-seeded dehiscent capsules to inde-
hiscent berries, nuts, and drupes. The families have been sorted out largely by special
features of somatic organization and hy special types of fruit-elaboration.

In absence of any other very distinctive characters it has become traditional
to isolate two empirical series, according to the orientation of the residual ovules
in the reduced ovary, as Geraniales (Geranium-type), ovules pendulous with raphe
internal, and Sapindales (Horse-Chestnut-type), with raphe external. More herbaceous
families (Oxalidaceac, Linaceae, Geraniaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Balsaminaceae) in
cultivation (Hort.) are omitted, and the diclinous Euphorbiaceae are taken in their
old position with the apetalous families as a matter of convenience (p. 36).

Also note, the characteristic disc-nectary (^discus) may be intra-staminal, extra-
staminal, generally receptacular, or superseded by other mechanism {^Pelargonium,
Tropaeolum, Itnpaiiins), and there is no very convincing evidence that many of the
families conventionally associated express any actual derivation from the typical
eucyclic construction after all {Aescu/us, Acer, Tropaeolum), but may represent
end-terms of a general convergence to a minimum of working-mechanism of similar
parts.

I. Erythroxylaceae (2 194) isolated for Erythroxyhn; cf. E. coca of
S. Amer. Erythroxylon monogynvim a small tree of dry districts, S. India; leaves,
I in., simple; flowers small, 6mm., axillary; pentamerous with 5 + 5 stamens
united below in a staminal tube, and 3 carpels : Fruit a scarlet drupe, i loculus fertile
with I seed.

II. Malpighiaceae (54/500) woody shrubs, largely lianoid, based on Mal-
pighia of Tro{)ical America : flowers pentamerous, commonly zygomorphic, stamens
5 + 5- carpels 3.

Hiptage Madablota, a straggling climbing shrub of forest-ravines : flowers
complex, with sternotribal presentation, obliquely zygomorphic in plane of sep. 3
(giving odd petal at back), i in, diani. ; stamens 10, the front one larger than the
others ; carpels 3 : Fruit an angular nut, i-seeded, with 3 divergent wings, the
middle one longer, 2 in.

III. Rutaceae (11 1/800) a key-group (cf. Ruta) with typically full eucyclic
organization, distinguished by oil-glands in the leaves : flowers range to tetramery,
with irregularities of construction in Aurantieae-section : cf, —

Choisya temata (Hon.), evergreen shrub of JMts. of Mexico, leaves opposite,
3-lobed, glossy and aromatic : terminal corymbose panicles of white flowers, i in.
diam.; petals 5-8, stamens 10-15; ihe filaments massive, white, making close-

18

contact around the ovary, restricting lateral access to the intrastaminal disc (tending
to tube-protection of secretion).

Citrus medica, a hill-shrub, cultivated in vars. as Citron, Lemon, Limes;
stamens 25-55, in single palisade of strap-shaped groups; carpels 9-1 1 ; flowering
and fruiting throughout the year.

C. AuriVitium, Orange, of E. Ilimalya, cult, in vars., stamens 15-30, carpels
10-13, often a reduced second whorl : moth-pollinated.

C, (hrumatia, Grape-fruit, Shaddock; flowers larger, petals recurved ; stamens
about 40, in tubular palisade, 10 mm.; carpels 8-16: fruit to 8 in. diam. and
5-6 lb.

Aegle Marmelos, Bael-tree, a small tree of dry deciduous forest, 40 ft., with
spinous branches, much cult. Flowers greenish-white, i in. diam., fragrant. Stamens
indef., carpels 10; Fruit an Orange-type, 4-5 in. diam., with yellow hard woody
rind, and numerous seeds in orange-coloured sweet aromatic pulp : taken by animals,
monkeys, deer, Sec.

IV. Simarubaceae (27/125) based on Simaruba a medicinal plant of
W. Indies, for Discifloral forms in which the carpels are united in the style-shaft,
but break away in the fruit-stage, and so appear ' apocarpous '. No oil-ducts or
glands ; the flowers more or less reduced and diclinous.

Ailanthiis excelsa, a large tree of deciduous forest, also cult., leaves pinnate
(12 pairs), 1-3 ft. Staminate flower with 10 stamens only: carpellary flower of
5 carpels, maturing fruit as 1-5 flat red samaras, 2-| in. ; seed centred and a slight
spiral twist at the ends.

Cf. A. glandiilosa, ChmvL, cult., dioecious; samaras 2 in., red when mature;
leaflets with glandular teeth near the base : spreading by root-suckers.

V. Burseraceae (16/320), based on American forms of Biirscra for a group
of tropical trees with resin-ducts: flowers small and of considerable range: cf.
Bahamodcndron Myrrha of Arabia, &c.

Boswellia serrata, Salai, a fairly large deciduous tree, common and gregarious
on dry hills, leafless in hot season : Flowers small, 5 mm., green, on the bare
branches: stamens 54-5, disc intrastaminal: ovary 3-locular, fruit dehiscing by
3-valved sarcocarp, with 3 pyrenae.

Garuga pinnata, a large deciduous tree, associated v,'ith Sal and Teak ;
flowers comparatively large, in yellowish panicles, with marked perigynous cup :
stamens 5-I-5, ovary 4-6 locular, each 2 ovules: Fruit a drupe with 2-4 tubercled
pyrenae persisting in soil 1-2 years.

VI. Meliaceae (40;'6oo), a great order of tropical forest-trees, with panicled
inflorescences of small Discifloral flowers, normally distinguished by the characteristic
utilization of a slaminal tube, as practically a gamophyllous mechanism protecting
the gvnoecium and ultimately also controlling the nectary : petals tend to become
superfluous. Fruits characteristically capsular, with winged seeds, but commonly
ranging to drupes with reduced output of seeds : in one important genus at least
there is no staminal tube.

Swietenia Mahagoni, Spanish Mahogany, a great tree of Trop. Amer., leaves
pinnate, panicles of small flowers, 7 mm. ; staminal tube, 3 mm., urceolate, with
10 teeth alternating with the anthers. Fruit a woody capsule, 3 in., 5-valved, with
numerous winged seeds. Cf. larger fruit of 6". macrophylla, 5-6 in., falling to pieces,
seeds winged, 3 in.

"Walsura villosa, Gyobo, common evergreen tree of Burma : flowers, small,
5 mm., with filaments gamophyllous below, broad and convergent above, seed with
fleshy aril in a pointed berry. W. rohiista, similar, filaments free.

Azadirachta indica, Neem, cult, everywhere, monotypic ; leaves pinnate,
evergreen; flowers in large panicles, small, white, 10 mm, diam.; staminal tube,
5 mm., narrow, with 10 teeth superposed to 10 anthers: disc inside the tube;
carpels 3, each 2 ovules; Fruit a drupe, \ in., i-seeded.

19 B 2

Melia Azedarach, ' Persian Lilac ', a deciduous tree in general cult. Leaves
2-3 limes piunaio. Flowers 12 mm. diam. ; petals white, staminal tube, 6 mm.,
narrow, violcl-purple ; anthers 10, alternating with paired tooth-processes of tube ;
Gynoecium 3-6 locular, 2 ovules in each loc; Fruit a small drupe with 5-seeded
bony sclcrocarp, giving 1-4 seedling?.

Carapa moluccensis (= Xylocarpiis), a liniber-trcc of the Sundril)ans and
IMangrovc-forniaiion, 30-50 ft., with pneumatophores ; evergreen, leaves pinnate,
panicles of few small reduced flowers, tetramerous, with urceolate staminal tube and
8 tcelh alternating with the anthers. Ovary 4-I0C., 2-8 ovules in each loc. ; fruit
3-,-, in. diam., as a massive subspherical woody capsule, dehiscing by 4 valves, and
shedding large angular seeds (1-2 in.), which float or germinate immediately;
cotyledons store starch, germination hypogeal.

Soymida febnfuga, a large deciduous tree of dry forest of S. India, &c. ;
leaves pinnate ; flowers small, greenish-white in terminal panicles ; staminal tube
lo-cleft, with 2 teeth on either side of the anthers. Ovary 5-locular; fruit a capsule,
1-2 in., dehiscing by 5 woody valves: seeds flat, winged at both ends.

Chukrasia tabiilaris, a large tree of moist hill-forest (Chittagong) : flowers
while, ^- in. long; staminal tube cylindrical with 10 anthers on the rim. Ovary
3-locular ; fruit a capsule, i-| in., dehiscing by 3 woody valves; seeds broadly winged
at one end.

Cedrela Toona (= Toona ciliata) Toon-tree, a large deciduous tree of Sub-
Himalya ami moist hill-forest, cult. ; Flowers small, white, in loosely panicled
systems; there is no true staminal tube, but a receptacular extension as nectary-
pockets at the base of the llower (antisep.), between orange lobes of the 'disc':
stamens f, only (antisep.). Fruit a typical 5-valved capsule with many close-packed
seeds. \ in. long, winged at both ends and spinning freely. Cf. C. serrata, with
;■; stamens and 5 staminodes : C. odorata of W. Indies, seeds winged at distal
end only.

Chloroxylon Swietenia, Satinwood ; valuable timber-tree of Central and
S. India, distinguished from the preceding by absence of staminal tube, and with
gland-dotted leaves. Disc lo-lobed, intrastaminal; ovary 3docular; Fruit a typical
capsule dehiscing loculicidally by 3 valves as in Clmkrasia, with winged seeds.
With pinnate foliage, small flowers in panicles, generalized eucyclic flower and
capsular fruit with winged seeds common to many Meliaceae, but now referred
to Rutaceae.

20

Angiosp : Dicot : Polypet : Tlialaniifl : Disciflorae — S;ii)in(lales. VII.

SAPINDALES (Kngler) include families of tice-hahit, in wliidi the full
euc}xlic lloral construction is rarely expressed. Reduction-variants of all grades
occur, and may have had a wholly distinct origin. The fruits range from dehiscent
capsules to indehiscent nuts and fleshy drupes : in one family the limit of gynoecial
reduction to one ovule per ovary, setting a i -seeded drupe or nut, is constant. The
Rhamnales, a section of minor significance, with the androecium reduced to
isostemony, and the stamens superposed to the jietals, is added as a matter of
convenience.

Aesculus indica, a fine Horse-cheslnut of N\V. Himalya, very similar to the
common form, aftbrds a typical case: a large deciduous tree (loo ft.), in moist shady
ravines, with decussate digitate foliage-leaves and terminal pyramidal panicles
(12-15 in.) of white zygomorphic flowers (petals with yellow splash turning crimson),
in lateral monochasia ; zygomorphy oblique in plane of sej). 4 ; corolla of 4 petals,
androecium of 7 stamens, and ovary of 3 carpels. Fruit a dehiscent massive capsule
(2 in.), without spines; seeds 1-2 in., with massive cotyledons storing starch. On
the strength of the peculiar androecium and the decussate digitate leaves, the type is
often separated as Hippocastanaceae (including Favia).

Sapindaceae (118/1050), a large and characteristic order of tropical trees,
more generalized than Aesculus, leaves commonly spirally arranged, pinnate or simple,
but also of wide range in floral reduction (following dicliny and apetaly). The fruits
range from dehiscent capsules to individualized drupes ; the 3-carpelled gynoecium
is a general feature, and the stamens are commonly 8 (or less than 10). Genera
have been grouped around Sapindus ; cf. 6". Saponaria of S. America, as yielding
' Soap Nuts ' of economic significance : cf as typical : —

Xanthoceras sorbifolia, China (Hort.), with deciduous pinnate foliage, spirally
arranged: flowers in erect terminal systems, diclinous; petals white (with yellow
turning pink) ; staminate flower with 8 functional stamens ; disc prominent with
5 orange-yellow horn-like nectary-lobes : carpellary flower with 3 carpels, syn-
carpous, and several ovules : fruit a large woody capsule, dehiscent loculicidally.

Sapindus laurifolius, Soap Nut of S. India, a large evergreen tree of dry
regions, much planted : leaves pinnate, 3 pairs of large leaflets. Flowers staminate,
with a few perfect : sepals 5, petals 4-5, stamens 8, ovary 3-lobed. In fruit the
ovary lobes separate as 2-3 small indehiscent drupe-portions, readily detached : the
seeds contain saponins.

S. detergens (= Mukorossi), with 5-10 pairs of leaflets, is the representative
species in NW. Himalya, cult, for soap : Drupes usually solitary (1-2), the others
rudimentary, | in.

Nephelium Litchi, evergreen tree of S. China, cult, for fruit; Flowers in
large panicles, few, liermaphrodite, small, apetalous, and irregular in construction :
calyx 4-8 cleft, gamosepalous; petals usually wanting; stamens 5-10, ovary 2-3
lobed, each loculus with i ovule. In fruit (edible) i or more lobes enlarge to
sharply tubercled globose structures (1 in. diam.) with i seed enclosed in a white
pulpy aril.

N. Longana, a limber-tree of W. Ghats and Ceylon, essentially similar, but
fruit -I in., nearly smooth, also with sweet edible aril.

Dodonaea viscosa, a small tree (20 ft.), gregarious as scrub in dry tracts
of Central India, &c. ; young branches e.xude yellow resin : flowers panicled, small,
5 mm., greenish-yellow, apetalous, with 8-10 large anthers; ovary 3-4 locular,
2 ovules in each loculus. The fruit is a thin-walled capsule. 2-4 valved, f in. over
all, each valve with a broad wing-extension.

Scleichera trijuga, a large tree of mixed dry deciduous forest, often gre-
garious, the best for Lac-insect. Leaves conspicuously of 3 pairs of leaflets.
Flowers in drooping panicles (3-5 in.), largely staminate only and apetalous, or

21

partially dioecious, .-, mm. Calyx minute with 5-6 teeth, petals wanting ; stamens
6-8, divergent ; disc wiiii wavy lobes; ovary with 3-4 loculi, basal placentation, and

1 ovule per loculus. Fruit globose, i in. long, 1-2 seeded, indchiscent : seed with
pulpy (edible) aril, storing oil.

As examples of smaller families, based on tree-forms familiar ni the N. Temp,
forests, antl presenting representative species, cf. —

Ilex dipyrena (Aquifoliaceae), a type very similar to Ilex Aqiiifolium, in
valleys of NW. Ilimalya; flowers greenish-white, diclinous, tetramerous, but usually

2 carpels only, ovules i per loculus, pendulous with raphe external, hence fruit
usuall}- with 2 pyrenae.

ijuonymus Hamiltonianus (Celastraceac), also a typical Eiionyvms, as a
small tree t^f outer Ilimalya: teiramerous type of construction, flowers 8 mm. diam. :
disc broad over centre of flower. Fruit deeply 4-lobed, and seeds with crimson arils.

Acer pictum {■= cul/ralinn) Aceraceae, a typical Maple of NW. Himalya;
a large deciiluous tree, with palmate very acutely lobed leaves and early-flowering
corymbose panicles. In fruit the 2 carpel-wings diverge widely in the same line,
and turn bright red.

Cf A. Ciusiuni, a large deciduous tree of W. Ilimalya; fruit-wings only slightly
divergent; also as representative species, A. Cavipbelli oi Y.. Himalya, flowers in
narrow panicles, and carpel-wings diverging i in, with broad rounded ends.

Anacardiaceae (58/500), based on A7iacardiu?n with its peculiar fruit. A great
group of important tropical trees (cf Rhus of N. Temp.) segregated by the limiting
reduction of the gynoecium of 5-3 carpels to output of one usually pendulous ovule
only. The flowers are of typical small Discifloral habit, greenish-white, panicled,
fly-pollinated; the stamens 10-5 (or reduced), and the carpels practically free, or
traced only in the siigma-lobes. The seeds are exalbuminous and the cotyledons
store fatty oil. Acrid juice, lacquer, and resin are characteristic products.

Anacardium occidentale of S. Amer,, cult, (Cashew Nut) : Panicles of small
yellow-j)ink flowers ; petals linear, stamens 10, the one over sepal no, i longer and
fertile, the others reduced and sterile. Fruit a kidney-shaped drupe (i in.) on an
orange or crimson enlarged receptacle (' hypocarp '), 2-3 in., edible, and dispersed by
birds. Pericarp with acrid blistering oil.

Semecarpus Anacardium, Marking Nut : panicles of small flowers ; drupe,
I in., jiurple-black with orange hypocarp (edible): pericarp with acrid juice,

Mangifera indica, Mango, indig. to Burma and moist hill-forest, cult, in
vars, and grafted : panicles of greenish-while flowers, 5 mm. ; majority staminate, few
hermaphrodite, with only i fertile stamen, and 4 others reduced and sterile. Drupe
2-6 in., yellow, with one great seed in fibrous sclerocarp; cotyledons with fat-storage,
germination hypogeal.

Buchanania latifolia, conspicuous small tree, 50 ft., of deciduous forest with
Sal, and in Burma : characteristic faceted bark : flowers in tomentose panicles,
small, 5 mm., greenish-white ; stamens 10, carpels 5, one fertile and oihers as rudi-
ments. Fruit a drupe, ^ in., edible, with bony sclerocarp.

Spondias mangifera, a large tree of deciduous forest, and planted ; fruit large
in manner of Mango, edible and taken by deer.

Melanorrhoea usitata, characteristic large deciduous tree of Eng forest
(Black lacquer): in fruit the petals grow to 5 'wings', 2-4 in. long, pink when
growing and suggesting flowers, spinning freelv. Fruit a dry nut on a distinct
' stalk' internode.

Swintonia floribunda, conspicuous tree in hill-forest (Chittagong), of similar
habit in fruit; Nut elongated, not 'stalked', with 5 petal sjiinning-wings, purple,
ultimately 2 in. long.

Odina Wodier, a large spreading tree of deciduous forest of India (with Sal)
and Burma, cull.; Flowers in feathery whitish panicles, small, monoecious; carpellary
flowers with sterile stamens. Drupe ^ in., taken by birds.

22

Fistachia integerrima, deciduous titc of dry slopes of W. Himalya, with
characteristic leaf-galls 6-7 in. lonjjf. Flowers small, dioecious; Drupe ^ in.

Rhamnaceae (4;-)/-,oo) based on European Rhanifius (liuckthorn) ; cf. —

Zizyphus Jujuba, a spinous tree, largely cult, for fruit: flowers small,
greenibh-yeliow ; ovary sunk in receptacle, 2-locular ; fruit a drupe, ^\x\. long (to
i^ in. cult.), with furrowed stone, 2-seeded and giving 2 seedlings.

Ampelideae (Vitaceae, 11/450) include liana-forms as \'i/is, Wild Vines,
400 sp., cf. : —

Vitis vinifera nidig. to N\V. Ilinialya and W. Asia, cult.; a large woody
climber with inllorescence-tendrils : flowers small, green, panicled, petals cohering
distally and shed ; stamens 5 antipet., free : carpels 2, ovules 2 (3) per loculus : berry
3-5 seeded, endosperm solid with thick walls.

Leea, a genus of erect shrubs, no tendrils, flowers with greater range, stamens
uniting with petal-bases in a staminal tube. J., umhraculifera in valleys, Sikkim,
50 ft., with thick trunk.

23

Anpiosp: Dicot : Polypet: Apocarpeae —Resales. VIII.

'Ihc LEGUMINOSAE (429 12000) commonly approached through the
herbaceous lyp^.^ ni IJian ami Pea of N. Temp, culiivation, represent a vast series
of polypctalous apocarpous phyla, in which the gynoecium is restricted to the limit
of one carpel only, of very typical megasporophyll nature, giving rise normally to
a ' pod '-fruit or legume. With this reservation the floral mechanism, based on
a limiting e.\[>ression of penlamerous eucyclic construction, may be further com-
plicated in terms of the zygomorphy more familiar in the Papilionaceous type, but
may also present extended range of specialization and reduction in the more
distinctly tropical series of the Caesalpineae. On the other hand, the section
Mimoseae presents a similar gynoecial reduction in a phylum of very divergent
nature ; the three sections being in fact sufficiently distinct to be regarded as
intlependent families, convergent in this limiting reduction of an archaic apocarpous
phase, and still holding their own in competition with syncarpous types, as in practice
a single ovar\-c(instruction jicr flower has been attained.

I. The Papilionaceae (308 gen.), following the general type of the Pea and
Bean in floral organization, include many fine forest-trees ; generic types may be
isolated by special features of the fiuiting-stage, and the characters of the foliage-
leaves.

Butea fi'ondosa, Dhak, a deciduous tree of open grass-lands, flowering
ai masse on the bare stems. Leaves trifoliate, leaflets coriaceous, 4-6 in. broad :
Flowers orange-red or scarlet, 2 in. ; standard recurved, keel boldly arched,
stamens 9-f-i; pod 5 in. (4-8), flat, with one flat seed at base, and the distal part
acting as spinning-wing, 4 in.

B. supirba a gigantic liana-form of S. India ; stem to 8 in. diam., flowers larger,
bright orange.

Dalbergia Sissoo, Shisham ; a large deciduous tree of Sub-Himalj'a, «fec.,
often gregarious on alluvial ground, much planted ; Flowers small, 7 mm., yellowish
white, in short axillary panicles. Stamens 9, pod linear lanceolate, 2-2^ in., 1-3
seeded, light, flat, indehiscent, wind-distributed and floating on flood-water.

Cf. D. la/t/olia, Rosewood, a large tree of deciduous forests : Larger pinnate
leaves, inflorescences, and pods, of same type.

/). Melanoxylo7i of W. Africa, naturalized : D. Olivieri in Eng forest.

Pterocarpus, also a valuable timber genus, with representative species, dis-
tinguished by broadly winged, one-seeded indehiscent fruits : —

P. indicus, Burmese sea-shore Padauk : pod flat and nearly circular, 1-2 in.
diam. ;

P. dalbergmdes, Andaman Red Wood, evergreen.

P. macrocarpus, deciduous, Inland Padauk of Eng Forest ; pods 2^-3 in. diam. ;

P. sanlalhiiis, Red Sanders, of Cuddapah, pods i^ in. :

P. Marsupium, Bija Sal, a large tree (100 ft.) of deciduous forest : Kino.
Flowers, )ellow. 18 mm., stamens 10, tube slit down in med. plane; Pods i-|-2 in.,
1-2 seeded.

Pongamia glabra of tidal coast-forest : flowers typical. Pea-like, 20 mm.; post,
stamen free at base only : pod xerophytic, massive leathery, 2 in. long, and i broad,
1-2 seeded, germination hypogeal.

QS. also: — Sophora japonica (Hon.) with 10 stamens, all free : C('/«/<'^ (Hort.)
with bladder-pods : Indigo/era tincloria. Indigo, flowers small, in purple racemes ;
stamens 9-I-1, pod simple; a shrub often cult, as annual: Alucuna, pods 2-3 in.,
with irritant bristles : Desmodium gyrajis, Telegraph Plant, herbaceous trifoliate
leaves, 2 lateral small pinnules show automatic movements, end-leaflet nyctitropic
only. Aeschynonufie aspera, Sola, a water-plant, with stem 2-3 in. diam. and soft
pilh-like white wood. Oligemia dalbergioides, common in Sal forest, and cult. ;

24

flowers in clusters on old Iwigs, pods slender with slight constriction between the
seeds,

II. Caesalpineae (91/1100). a scries in which the Pea-t3pe of flower is
infrequent. Kxaniples of extreme z}gomor])hy occur, but practical actinomorphy
may be retained, or parts may be further reduced ; cf. as available : —

Cereis Siliquastriim, Judas Tree, of S. Europe: Flowers on bare branches
in clusters on spur-shoots before the leaves, pink and Pea-like, ^ in. ; stamens all
free ; a definite jierigynous receptacle as nectary-cup, the standard-petal enclosed
within the wings, as these are inside the keel. Pods flat, 3-4 in., hanging from the
branches.

Haematoxylon campechiauum, Logwood; small tree of W. Indies, cult.;
Flowers actinomorphic, 8 mm.; petals equal, jellow ; stamens 5-1-5, but one .carpel
only, and the fruit one-seeded : in some respects possibly the most elementary form
of the group.

Hardwickia binata, Anjan ; a large gregarious timber-tree of dry deciduous
forest of S. India, deep-rooted; Leaflets 2 only, 1-2 in. long, with terminal pointed
rudiment : Flowers small, greenish-yellow, 15 mm., in lax racemes, apctaloiis; sep. 5,
stamens 5 -f- 5, one carpel ; fruit a flat pod, 2-| in., indehiscent with one seed at
distal end, spinning-type : the limit of simple reduction. As extreme cases, cf. : —

Cassia Fistula, a tree of deciduous forest, and commonly cult. ; leaves
pinnate ; with {pendulous racemes of yellow flowers (suggesting Laburnum) : stamens
differentiated, 3 long anterior dehiscing by slils, 4 with shorter filaments and dehiscing
by pores, 3 posterior minute and sterile. Pod cylindrical, large, black, 1-2 ft., with
seeds in black resinous pulp, medicinal and economic ; animal-dispersed.

C. auricuJata a shrub on dry stony soils gives tannins.

Poinciana regia, Gold INIohur Tree. Afiican, cult., with erect showy panicles
of scarlet flowers; pods flat, 1-2 ft.

Tamarindus indica, a fine tree of C. Africa, naturalized and cult. ; Lax
racemes of 10-15 floweis; 3 post, petals only functional, 2 ant. minute; 3 post,
stamens large and curved forwards, others as vestigia only. Pods as thick husks
Avith brown acid pulp, fibres, and small brown seeds.

Amherstia nobilis, evergreen tree of S. Burma, cull. ; leaves hang vertically
uhen young. Inflorescences as pendulous racemes, many flowered ; prophylls large
and scarlet, 2 posterior sepals give a hooded segment, others simple ; 3 post, petals, of
which the median is a flag-segment with broad waved lamina with crimson and
yellow blotch at end, 2 anterior as rudiments. Stamens 9 -f i ; med. post, stamen
reduced ; 5 anterior long, and 4 short : Perigynous receptacle extended 40 mm. to
a narrow nectary-tube ; honey-bird pollinated. Pod flat and linear, 7 in.

Bauhinia Vahlii, a gigantic liana- form, destructive to Sal, &c.: stem to 100 ft.
long, and 1-2 ft. diam., growing 50 ft. a year, with anomalous thickening. Leaves to
18 in., ' cleft ' \ down : Flowers creamy-white, 5 petals and 3 fertile stamens; petals
hairy, i-| in. long. Pod 9-18 in., long, broad and flat, hairy, woody and bursting
explosively.

B. variegata, a middle-sized tree of dry deciduous and hill-forest, cult. ; Flowers
large and showy, fragrant, white and pink : standard-petal darker or variegated,
conspicuous, with 5 functional stamens. Pods long and slender.

III. Mimoseae (30 1000) : a wholly distinct type of floral organization,
familiar in Acacia dcalbata (]\Iimosa), the Australian Silver Wattle. Foliage bi-
pinnate, evergreen ; inflorescence as panicles of small globular capitula, 8 mm.,
fragrant ; flowers not all perfect, minute, with a dense cycle of 30 stamens, slender
style, reduced valvate sepals and gamophyllous petals ; actinomorphic, pollen in
l)ackets. Fruit a pod (2-3 in.) dehiscent, seeds non-endospermic. Elementary
forms have larger flowers on a similar plan in more racemose spikes.

Prosopis spicigera, Jhand : a stunted thorny tree, gregarious in dry tracts of
Punjab, &c., persisting by deep root. Flowers in slender spikes ; stamens 10, anthers

25

with apical 'gland'. Pod with coriaceous husk, indehiscent, 5-10 in., seeds in
s\veeti>h pulp with contracted portions.

Entada scandens, a huge liana-form of Tropical sea-coast and hills : flowers
palc-ycUow, in crowded slender spikes. Stamens 10, with 'gland'. Pod immense,
2-4 ft., woody, 10-30 seeded, separating 'Cocci' from rim-framework, each with
I flat soed, orl'icular, polished, 2 in. diam.

Xylia dolabriformis, Pyingado, gregarious in deciduous forest, with Teak in
Burma : Klowers pale-yellow, in long-stalked sub-globose heads, 20 mm. diam. :
Pod thick, woody, xerophyiic, 4-6 in. long, with characteristic curved valves, very
explosive, 6-10 seeds.

Acacia arabica, Babul, a large tree of dry regions, deserts of Rajputana, and
cult., gregarious, thorny, and often stunted. All pans used, wood exudes gum :
Flowers golden-yellow, in globose heads, -^ in. diam. : Pod moniliform, flat, 3 in.,
with marked constrictions between the seeds, and covered with grey tomentum ;
taken by cattle.

Cf. A. Senegal, African sp. also cult, for Gum Arabic : A. Verek of Sudan.

A. Catechu, Khair, middle-sized tree of dry deciduous forest and sides of
streams : flowers in pale-yellow cylindrical spikes, 2-3 in. long ; Pods thin, brown,
and dehiscent. :;-4 in.: ' Cutch ' of tannins from wood-chips.

Albizzia procera, White Siiis, a large deciduous tree, conspicuous near river-
banks, also cull. : Flowers large, 10 mm., with delicate stamens. Pod flat, brown,
strap-shaped, 4-8 in. : Young leaves with white tomentum.

A. odoratissima, Black Siris, a large tree, common in mixed forest, leaves
dark-green, leaflets 10-25. Flowers 10 mm., in panicled corymbs, fragrant. Pod
6-8 in., smooth and flat, reddish-brown.

A. Lebbek, Siris, common and cult., avenues. Flower i in. long, in heads,
white and fragrant. Pod, 8-12 in., thin and dehiscent, straw-coloured, rattling when
dry in hot season.

Pithecolobium dulce, Karkapilly, spinous hedge-plant from Mexico : Flowers
white, in small globose heads on long racemes. Pod 4-5 in., coiled, red and succu-
lent husk ; seeds in spongy edible pulp.

P. Saman, Rain Tree of S. Ameiica in damp situations and swamps, Burma.

Mimosa pudica, Sensitive Plant (Hort.), a spinous shrub, as weed from
S.America: flowers in globular pale-violet heads, 20 mm. diam., Fruit-pods small,
I in., constricted, spinous.

Rosaceae include representatives in Hill-forest, of such types as Spiraea,
Rulius, Rosn, Cydoiiia, Eriobolrya, Pyrus, Crataegus, P rutins [P. Atiiygdalus, Almond ;
P. persica. Peach ; P. Puddiim of Himalya, &c. gives timber). Cf. also Coloneasfer
Simotisii {Won.) of Khasia Hdls.

Saxifragaceae similarly aftbrd representative species of flowering shrubs as
Philadelphus, Deu/zia, Piles, &c. (Hort.).

26

Angiosp : Dicol : Polypct : Calyciflorae. IX.

CALYC I FLORAL FAMILIES, oiioiiuilly isohucd by ihe 'calyx '-like
character of a rcceptacular extension, commonly giving; rise to phenomena of the
' inferior ' ovary, and extended to cover other cases of special receptacular develop-
ments (cf. Resales, Lythraccae, Caclaceae, Passifloraccae), are now seen to be a wholly
empirical collection of highly specialized floral constructions in which the inferior
ovary remains the most readil)- observed feature of the floral organization, also aff"ect-
ing the subsequent formation of the fiuit. In such cases other special features pre-
viously emphasized acquire a subsidiary signiflcance, as apocarpy (Rosaceae, Legu-
minosae), indeflnite androecium (Myrtales), even spiral construction of indefinite
perianth (Cactaceae), eucycly (Combretaceae), meiocycly (Umbelliferae). Similarly
all stages of reduction (tetramery, dicliny, apetaly) may also obtain in deteriorated
mechanisms, and the fruiting-stage may present the full range of variety, from
dehiscent carpels and capsules to one-seeded drupes, nuts and achenes.

So long as the exact relation of these isolated families to other series remains
a matter of mere speculation, the section-heading is {)rovisionally retained as the most
generally convenient arrangement {Gtu. Plant., 1862).

I. Myrtaceae (72/2750) founded on the Myrtle of S. Europe, and extended
along similar lines to a great tree-group with opposite gland-dotted leaves, a flower
with indefinite stamens in tassel-formation, offering abundant pollen, no nectary,
a syncarpous ovary with axile-placcntation, and a single style. The floral organization
is thus lundamentally Cistifloral (cf. Guttiferae), but the gynoecium shows further
advance in the complete ' fusion' of the style (with no trace of vestigial carpels), and
the pocket-formation of the inferior ovary. Individual genera may present further
elaborations of the type : —

Eugenia cai*yophylIata, Clove i^Javibosa Caryophy litis), cult, in Tropics ; ever-
green widi decussate leaves and axillary clusters of few flowers ; tetramerous, receptacle-
tube and sepals crimson, unopened buds (12 mm.) collected for eugenol ; petals pink,
shed as a cap on opening (5 mm.) ; stamens inarched in bud, divergent in flower as
tassel-cluster, 8 mm. over all ; single stout style, 3 mm., ovary with many ovules :
fruit of enlarged receptacle, indehiscent, with 4 apical calyx-teeth : cf. Engenia^oxvas
with free petals (62 5),_/rtwZi^j'(7, petals shed as cap (120), 4)'2)^?V/;;/, corolla a fused cap
(140).

Eugenia Jambos, Rose-Apple, a small tree, cult. : the more generalized type ;
flowers large, greenish-white, 2-3 in. diam. ; 5 petals free, stamens indef. tassel,
40 mm.; carpels 2, style 40 mm. : Fruit a berry-form, 1-2 in. diam., pink, edible.

Eugenia Jambolana ( = Syzyguwi), a large evergreen tree, cult, and widely
distributed : Petals fused as a ' calyptra ' thrown oft' on expansion in one piece,
stamens as a white cluster : Fruit a purple-black drupe, juicy and edible, -g-i-l in. long,
with I or more seeds ; taken by birds and flying foxes.

Eucalyptus, a great Australian genus (160) of tall evergreen trees, growth rapid,
many introduced, cf. : —

E. globulus. Blue Gum of SE. Australia, cult, in Nilgiris, a tall tree with
dimorphic foliage (juvenile leaves only decussate and waxy blue) ; flowers large, showy,
1-2 in. leaf-axils; sepals obscure, petals fused in massive calyptra, stamens indef in
tassel-formation, spreading; ovary 3-6 locular, many ovules ; style simple : fruit hard
and sclerosed, dehiscing apically ; seeds numerous, small.

E. amygdalina, Red Gum, the tallest Dicot. 300 ft., similar in flower and fruit.

PsidiumGuayava, S. American tree, Guava, cult. ; flowers white, i^ in. diam. ;
fruit enlarged inferior ovary, as succulent edible bcriy-type, 2 in.

Lecythidaceae (18/130), based on S. American Lay this, and separated by
leaves spirally arranged, not gland-dotted, otherwise highly specialized lines of
tropical forest-trees ; organization essentially Cistifloral, witli characteristic specializa-
tion in androecium : cf. Lecy flu's, Monkey Pot ; Couroupita guiancnsis, small trees,
flower massive, 5-6 merous, 3-4 in. diam.; the receptacle is extended unilaterally to

27

a broad thong wiili stamens, reflected over the primary androecium, hence sternotribal
and nototrib.il : carpels 6, fruit a capsule, large and woody, dehiscing by a lid.

BerthoUetia excelsa, IJr.izil Nut, tall tree of S. Amer. forest; calyx fused
and splitting into 2 parts: flower i in., tetramcrous ; androecium with reflected
region. Fruit a large wooden capsule, 4-locular, 2 rows of large seeds in each loc.
a small cover cut ofl" as lid with placental region. Seed as a large ' nut ' ; embryo
massive, not dilTorentiated, no endosperm.

Biirrini^'foniii, tall trees of strand-foiost. B. s/^cciosa of Malay, flowers 5-7 in.,
stamens 3-4 in. long. Fruit 3-4 in. diani.

B. racemoaa S. India, flowers tetramcrous, 2 in. ; fruit ovoid 2^ in,

Canyj aii'Orea, large deciduous tree of savannah-land : flowers tetramcrous,
2-3 in. diam. ; androecium gamophyllous below, with many staminodal filaments :
fruit green, sub-globular, berry-lype, 2-3 in. diam.

Lythraceae (21/450), based on herbaceous Lv/hrum Salicarta of Europe, and
extended to tropical trees with similar floral organization; i.e. a receptacular tube
which does not aftect the ovary (still ' superior ') : leaves opposite, ' calyx -tube ' takes
up sepals and petals (or stamens in part). The intercalated growth is protective and
secretory ; the flowers are still essentially Cisiifloral, of reduced type, with axile
placentaiion, and the fruits are dehiscent many-seeded capsules.

Lagerstroemia parviflora, large timl)er-tree of deciduous forest, associate of
Sal, leaves opposite, simple : inflorescence few-flowered (3-6) : flowers white, fragrant,
10-12 mm. diam., 6-merous ; stamens 30-40, 5 anlisep. (10 mm.) longer than the
others (5 mm.) ; good cup-shaped receptacular tube (5 mm. diam.), stamens from
base. Fruit a coriaceous capsule, i in., loculicidal with 3 stout valves : seeds numerous,
winged, 15 mm.

L. itidicii of China, cult, for large rose-coloured flowers, 2 in. diam., 6 larger
stamens, petals crumpled and crisped on margins.

L. Flos Reginae, chief timber-tree of Bengal and Assam, in moist situations ;
panicles of large innplish flowers 2-3 in. diam., 6-merous, petals crumpled in bud,
stamens 100-150, all equal.; carpels 6 (7-8), antisepalous ; Receptacle-cup massive,
stamens borne ^ way up ; Fruit a woody capsule, opening distally, loculicidally by
6 wide slits. Seeds numerous, angularly winged, 10 mm.

Lawsonia alba, Henna, a small hedge-shrub, often spinous; flowers greenish-
yellow, i in., 4-niLTOus, stamens in 4 aniise[>. pairs, capsule dehiscing irregularly.

Woodfordia floribunda, common gregarious shrub of dry hill-sides ; Flowers
clustereii. briu'ht red, 6-merous, zygomorphic : stamens 12 from base of receptacle tube.

Sonneratia acida, small tree of tidal creeks and Mangrove formation (Sundri-
bans. &c.), Leaves obovate, opposite, light glaucous green : slender pneumatophores
from horizontally spreading roots. Flowers perigynous, 6-merous, 2 in. diam., petals
purple; fruits edible, 2 in. diam.

S. apetala, similarly common in IMangrove-formation, gregarious, to 50 ft.,
flowers iriramcrous, apetalous, i in. diam. ; fruit a capsule, -f in.

Rhizophoraceae (15/60). Based on the Mangrove (R. Mangle) of Trop.
Amer., characteristic of halophytic swamps and muddy sea-margins (Mangrove-belt).
Flowers cucyclic, Discifloral, in few-flowered cymes, 4-merous, i in. diam. Stamens
4 -I- 4; ovary of 2 median carpels, each 2 ovules. Fruit i-seeded, the seed germina-
ting/« .r/7//, to a long (10 in.) pendulous embryo (mainly hypocoiyl-axis), detached
into mud ('viviparous').

R. mucronata. Tropics of Old World, similar, on sea-face of I\Iangrove-belt,
with stilt-rools submerged at high-tide. Flower i in. diam., stamens 8 ; Fruit 2 in.,
and embryo wiih hyi)Ocotyl extending to 2 ft. or more.

Bruguiera gymnorhiza, a large tree behind the Rhizophora, no stilt-roots, but
resj)iratory 'knees'; also viviparous, hypocotyl 1-2 ft.

Carallia integerrima, large tree of inland forest ; leaves coriaceous, glossy ;
Flowers in similar clusters of the same type, eucyclic, 6-8 merous, 4 carpels; fruit
small, I -seeded.

38

Conibretaceae (15/450) of essentially tropical trees, with very characteristic
advanced floral organ izai ion, encyclic and Discifloral ; petals may be wanting, but the
inferior ovary is unilocular with 2 (or more) pendulous ovules, and single style-shaft.
The fruits are i -seeded nuts, indehiscent, and commonly angular or winged.

Terminalia Chebula, a large tree of mixed ileciduous forest ; Flowers small,
greeni>h, in short panicles or spikes, ape'alous, fly-pollinated, odour disagreeable,
many staminate only. Fruit obovoid, or 5-angle(l, i^ in. (IMyrobalans), i-seeded,
without endosperm, cotyledons large and convolute (in transv. sect.), storing fat.

As important representative S[)ecies, cf. : —

T. Catappa, Beach-forests of the Andamans, planted and cult, for edible seeds
(Indian Almond) ; halophytic, fruit floating, 2 in., 2-angled, 2-winged with hbious
pericarp and strong sclerocarp.

T. belerica, large deciduous tree, 120 ft,, common except in driest regions :
fiuit ovoid, I in., with hard sclerocarp, taken by animals.

T. tomentosa, a large deciduous tree, 100 ft. common, except in desert tracts,
young branches and leaves with rusty jnibescence. Fruit 2 in., with 5 broad longi-
tudinal coriaceous wing-ridges, and hard bony s-clerocarp.

T. Arjuna, a large buttressed tree, nearly evergreen, common on banks of
streams, leaves coriaceous ; fruit similar, more spindle-shaped, wings narrow.

Anogeissus latifolia, a large tree characteristic of dry deciduous forest, leaves
turn copper-red in cold season. Flowers in small globose capitula (i in.), minute,
apetalous, receptacle-tube elongated. Fruit very small, a samara, 2-\vinged, 5 mm.,
with remains of receptacle-tube as beak (4 mm.).

As types of particularly isolated series, cf. : —

Hamamelidaceae (18/50) based on Hamamelis, Wych-Hazel of N. Amer.,
commonly placed near Saxifrages from the receptacle-tube being partially free and
the gynoecium of 2 carpels, 2-I0C., 2 styles, and fruit a capsule.

Parrotia Jacquemontiana, gregarious small Hazel-like tree of NW. Himalya,
for wicker antl bridge-rope : flowers diclinous, greenish-yellow, in clustered heads,
apetalous, stamens 15; capsule \ in., with stellate tomentum, 2-seeded, with horny
dehiscent sclerocarp.

Bucklandia poptilnea, a tall evergreen tree of E. Himalya (Dar joeling, hill-
forest) ; stij-ules large, enveloping the buds ; flowers in clustered heads of 8-20, fused
up; petals rudimentary or wanting; stamens 10-14, ovary with several ovules, seeds
winged.

Carica Papaya (Papaw) of Cavicaceae (2/30), of Tropical Amer., cult., a small
soft-wooded tree with latex, single stem, leaves palmately lobed, to 2 ft. across, on
long petioles held horizontally ; stems with yellow bark and seal-scars ; staminate
inflorescence pendulous, staminate flower with white trumpet-receptacle and 5 -f 5,
stamens near top : carpellary flower with free white petals, conspicuous ovary,
5 carpels and 5 elaborate siigmatic branches, parietal placentation. Fruit succulent,
with black seeds in sweet pulp. Endosperm stores fat. (Formerly classed with
Passion-flowers, from fruit.)

Tetrameles nudiflora (Datiscaceae, 4/4), a tall deciduous tree of hill-forest,
stem buttressed ; flowers on bare stems in branched panicles, dioecious, tetramerous,
5 mm.; Staminaie flower with 4 i-tamens, carpellary flower with 4 styles, and
indefinite ovules on 4 parietal placentas. Capsules shed minute seeds.

Opuntia Dillenii, Prickly Pear of S. Amer. (Cactaceae, 20/1500). Branches
as succulent-flattened cladodes in obovate segments, with leaf-points indicated b\-
sharp spines (i in.). Flowers of spirally arranged indefinite perianth above the inferior
ovary, yellow ; stamens indefinite, shorter than the ' petals '. Ovary with parietal
placentation, many ovules. Fiuit succulent, bird-dispersed, pear-shaped, with spines
distally.

Araliaceae (51/660), type Hcdcra, includes Aralia, Gamhlca, Dcndropanax ,
following the general lines, with tendency to simple umbellate inflorescence-schemes
in panicles.

29

Ancriosp : Dicnt : rianiopet : T^icarpolhtap. X.

BICARPELLATAE of Gen. Plant. (1876), a convenient assemblage of
ineioc}clic (lainopctalae (ilie main series), with ' superior ' ovary and of ' hypogynous '
conslruciion of the type : — sep. 5, pet. 5, stamens 5, gynoecium of 2 median carpels,
syncarpous. The flowers present a great range of floral mechanism and fruit-
elaboration, and the section is largely separated into families and groups by conspicu-
ous features of somatic organization (e.g. opposite leaves), and the construction of the
gynoecium in terms of placentation, as also leading to different types of fruit-formation :
the last may range from dehiscent ' follicles ' to capsules and indehiscent achenes,
schizocarps anil cocci, berries and drupes. Families with opposite leaves and actino-
morphic' flowers may be taken first, as most readily identified by such obvious
features : cf. : —

Oleaceae (20/390), founded on Oka (Olive) of S.Europe, extended to Fra.xinus,
Syriw^a. Lii^ustrum. Osmanthus, Jasminiim (Mort.), distinguished by flowers ranging
to tetramery, and in the limit apetaly (Ash), but the androccium remains constant at
2 stamens alternating with 2 carpels of the gynoecium, syncarpous with 2 ovules per
loc. Fruit a capsule (Syn'nga) or berry {Li'giistniru), i -seeded samara {Fraxifius) ;
including representative species as small trees and shrubs of hill-districts.

Salvadora persica, Mustard-tree, of Salvadoraceae (3/9), a small tree, 30 ft.,
of dry regions, cult., and as halophyte ; evergreen with coriaceous leaves. Flowers
greenish-white in lax panicles, tetramerous, stamens 4, ovary unilocular with i basal
ovule. Fruit a red drupe, i-seeded, with thin sclerocarp and pungent taste. Other-
wise put with Disciflorae.

Apocynaceae (130/1000), a large family based on Apocynum of jNIedit. region,
and extended to a wide range of tree-forms with usually opposite leaves, milky juice
(latex) and flowers with convolute corolla and tube-mechanism, commonly moth-
l)ollinated : the gynoecium of 2 carpels is fused distally in a common style-extension ;
these break away in fruit to give dehiscent ' follicle '-like })ods (much in the manner of
Stercidia\ Seeds commonly packed in the pods with silky hairs subsequently
utilized for wind-dispersal.

Alstonia scholaris, large evergreen tree of damp forest, leaves coriaceous,
flowers greenish-white, in compact long-stalked cymose clusters. Corolla-tube 8 mm. ;
fruits slender pod-;, pendulous, 1-2 ft. ; seeds with fringe of hairs.

Holarrhena antidysenterica, a small tree, common in deciduous forest,
often gregarious ; flowers white, fragrant, i-i-| in. diam. ; fruits slender pods, 8-14 in.,
5 mm. diam., seeds with tuft of hairs (2 in.) at one end.

Piumeria actitifoUa of W. Indies, cult., very milky, leaves spirally arranged.
Flowers on bare stems, fragrant, large, white with narrow tube, and typical moth-
type of mechanism ; anthers at base of tube, 20 mm. from orifice.

Wrightia tomentosa, a small deciduous tree, flowers brownish, i^ in. diam.,
with red corona-growths. Fruit a rough pod, 6-12 in. long ; seeds linear, -gin.,
with fine silky coma packing the interior.

Asclepiadaceae (217/1700), similarly with opposite leaves, latex, meiocyclic
flowers, and 2 carpel-pods divergent in fruit, pass on to elaborated mechanism with
coherent pollinia, retinaculum (' spoon ' or ' clip ') as stigmatic parts taking out
pollen from loculi of adjacent anthers. Fly- or moth-pollinated, of highest floral
organization in Dicots. ; cf. Periploca (Hort.) spoon-type, nectary on petals; Asckpias
{Hort.)clip-retinaculum type; Ceropegia (Hort.) as ' fly-bottle ' trap-type. No timber-
trees, but many shrubs and lianoid {Periploca)., also herbaceous succulent {SiapeUa\

Loganiaceae (32/,")5o) based on Logania of Australia, covers the case of oppo-
.^ite leaves, aclinomorphic, meiocyclic flowers, no latex, and fruits as many-seeded
capsules, as a more generalized group with great range, hence liable to take in forms
not included in the more specialized families. Cf. Biiddleia globosa of S. Amer.
(Hort.), simple flowers in orange balls, 20 mm. diam. ; B. variabilis, violet spicate

30

panicles, flowers actinomorphic, 4-merous, 8 mm. diam. ; Fruit a small capsule, 8 mm.
(Hort.), bee and butterfly-pollinated ; seeds small wiih wing-cxlension.

Strychnos Nux-vomica, common evergreen tree of S. India, &c., leaves
glossy, flowers greenish-while, in cymose clusters : corolla tubular, 8 mm. ; fruit a
large orange berry (1-2 in. diam.) with 8-9 massive seeds (like grey buttons), 15 mm.
diam., with solid endosperm.

Fagraea obovata, a small tree, often epiphytic (as on Teak), with clasping roots :
Flowers large, Irngrant, with tube i-i^in. long. Berry glossy-green to black, i-i^ in.

Boraginaceae (85/1550), a large order, mainly herbaceous, leaves spirally
arranged, flowers typically pcntamerous and actinomorphic ; gynoecium of 2 carpels,
each 2 ovules ; stylo gynobasic and fruit separating as 4 dry mericarps (cocci) ; cf.
Anchusa, Symphylum, j\[yosotis (Hort.) ; a wider range in : —

Cordia Myxa, deciduous tree of shady ravines in Sub-IIimal}a, &c., largely
cult.; Flowers, small, white, 10 mm., in clustered cymes; styles 2, each 2-fid, not
gynobasic ; Fruit a drupe, ^-i in., glossy-yellow, subglobose, turning black, with
rugose ' stone' in sweet viscid translucent pulp; taken by birds and monkeys: Seeds
I or more, sclerocarp splitting ofi" ' valves ' on germination.

Ehretia laevis, common in deciduous forest; flowers in unilateral cymes,
white, 5 nmi. ; style 2-fid, not gynobasic; Fruit a small orange-red drupe, 5 mm. with
3-4 pyrenae.

Bignoniaceae (100/500) essentially tropical tree and liana-forms, leaves
commonly opposite, flowers handsome, more or less zygomorphic, stamens reduced
to 4 (2) in correlation; gynoecium of 2 median carpels, the ovary 2-locular with a
large number of ovules on compound placentas, appearing (in transv. sect.) as 2-lobed
in each loculus. Fruit typically a dehiscent capsule with characteristic winged seeds ;
two valves separate from the median placental tracts (dissepiment).

Stereospermum ehelonoides, a large tree of moister deciduous forest ;
Flowers fragrant, yellow marked with red, \ in. long. Capsule a slender pod,
10-30 in., and ^ in. diam., seeds wedge-shaped, sunk in ' notches' of a corky cylin-
drical dissepiment (like a jointed snake), with wings at each end (i in. over all)
shaped to the curve of the dissepiment.

S. suaveolens, in drier districts and with Sal. Fruit 1-2 ft., ^ in. diam., dark
grey and speckled ; valves hard and thick, seeds flat and winged.

S. xylocarpum, deciduous tree of Central Provinces ; capsule to 3 ft., over i in.
diam. ; woody and tubercled, seeds i in., winged \ in. at each end.

Cf. also: — Dolichmidrone falcata, with white, nearly regular, trumpet-shaped
flowers, i-i^ in. lube; Spathodea cajnpamdata, W. African Tulip-Tree, with con-
spicuous zygomorphic red-and-yellow flowers; I\Iillingionia hortensis, Burma, cult.,
a large tree with fragrant white flowers ; corolla-tube 3-4 in., slender ; 4 stamens
at base of tube ; fruit capsule 12 in., seeds with 3 transparent wing-ridges. Oroxylum
indiciim, a small deciduous tree, leaves bipinnate, 3-5 ft. ; flowers purplish, corolla
2-3 in., trumpet-shaped : capsule flat, 1-3 ft. and 3 in. broad, flattened in the plane
of the dissepiment ; seeds with a papery netted wing, 3 in. broad, flat with a flat green
central embr3-o.

Acanthaceae (173/2050) based on Acanthus of S. Europe, with markedly
zygomorphic flowers, 4 stamens, and dehiscent fruits ; seeds on a special type of
placenta. Mainly shrub and herbaceous types, extended to a large no. of tropical
shrubs and herbaceous plants, the most important: —

Strobilanthes in many species (180, Indian 21), as gregarious shrubs of under-
wood, or on open hill-sides as dense scrub : more or less monocarpic and flowering
periodically, colouring the landscape violet-blue ; dying down after fruiting and allow-
ing regeneration of forest-trees. S. auricidatus, 4-6 ft., with Sal, flowering every 6
years: stem quadrangular, flowers blue, in bracteate spikes 3-5 in. long; others in
liill-country, wiih representative species.

Verbenaceae (67/760) founded on European Verbena, and extended to a wide

31

range of forms with similar floral construction ; leaves opposite, flowers pentamerous,
more or less zygomorphic, stamens 4, carpels 2 median ; the ovary generally with 2
ovules per loculus, and separating 4 cocci, dry or succuleiit ; without the gynobasic
style of the Labiatae.

Cf. a wilier range in : —

Vitex Negundo, a deciduous shrub of drier regions and waste places, planted
in hedges. &c. Flowers small, violet, in elongated terminal panicles of opposite
cymes; corolla^ in. diam., 2-lipped ; Fruit a drupe, sclerocarp 1-4 seeded.

V. altissima, a large evergreen tree of \\. Ghats: Flowers white, drupe ^ in.,
al^o ]'. pulicscens and V. Uucoxvloti, deciduous, of S. India, with axillary cymes only,
and small lirupes similarly 4-locular : cf. Clerodendron, Aloysia (Hort.).

Tectona grandis, Teak, a large tree in mixed deciduous forest of both Penin-
sula.-^, 150-190 It. witli 100 ft. bole, and 7-8 ft. diam, ; Leaves opposite, lamina 1-2 ft.,
with grey stellate tomentum, on quadrangular shoots : Inflorescence as terminal
erect panicles (1-3 ft.), conspicuous in the rainy season, of small white flowers,
actinomorphic, 5-6 merous, with 5-6 stamens, fly-pollinated. Fruit a hard nut,
indehiscent, with corky apex and felt of hairs, further enclosed in the dry saccate
pers-istent calyx (i-i^ in. dianu), 4 seeds included: dispersed by water-flotation;
in germination the sclerocarp splits off" i or more ' valve '-pieces laterally, 1-4 seedlings
from a nut.

Qmelina artorea, a large deciduous tree (100 ft.) of Sub-Himalya, &c. ;
Flowers yellowish-brown, pentamerous, all parts softly hairy; corolla i-i-g in., zygo-
morphic. Fruit a yellow drupe, i in., taken by cattle ; sclerocarp dehiscing by
valves. •

Avicennia oflacinalis, a large evergreen tree, halophytic in Mangrove Zone
(Sundnbans, &c.), common and often gregarious, with respiratory roots. Leaves
with silvery tomentum ; flowers small, 10 mm., yellow, zygomorphic, stamens 4 ; ovary
4-locular, 4 ovules suspended from central placenta. Capsule dehiscing by 2 woody
valves. I -seeded only, and the seed often more or less viviparous; seeds floating and
germinating, }Oung plants fixed in mud by stifl" recurved hairs on the hypocotyl.

Lantana aciileata, a Verbena-like spinous shrub of S. Amer. (Hort.) intro-
duced and a pest in S. Ind. and Ceylon. Flowers, 5 mm. pink to orange-yellow ;
fruit a small black drupe, 6 mm., taken by birds.

32

Angiosp : Dicot : Gamopetalae II. ZI.

EUCYCLIC GAMOPETALAE (Ilticromeiac of Gai. Plant., 187C), con-
ventionally incliiiiing at least 3 distinct groups of divergent series of gamopetalous
construction with very characteristic features, classified as Ericales, Primulales,
Ebenales {Gen. Plani.).

I. Ericales include Ericaceae (67 1350) with Rhododendreae and allied sections
in which the full eucyclic formula normally obtains, together with full number of
antipetalous carjiels : minor irregularities are to be allowed for; e. g. /.V/cvz may be
tetramerous, Calluna is only slightly gamopetalous, Vacctnutn has an inferior ovary.
Porous dehiscence of the anthers and the general occurrence of ' trigger-mechanism '
has continued the older term of Bicornes (Eichler, 1875). Arbutus Unedo affords a
typical arboreal example of 7iV-/rr7-organization, with white bell-shaped flower,
10 mm., and succulent red berry-fruit, | in. diam. ; cf. : —

Rhododendron arboreum, a small evergreen tree of W. Himalya, at 5,000-
8,000 ft., semi-gregarious with Quercus I'ncana ; garden forms and hybrids of similar
organization. Flowers deep crimson, shortly stalked in sub-globular umbel-like
corymbs ; calyx rudimentary, corolla zygomorphic, with broad tube, horizontally pro-
jected ; odd petal posterior, spotted and grooved to nectary-lobes of disc ; anthers
dehisce by pores, in sternolribal series (5 -|- 5), pollen in tetrads, cohering in silky
threads ; pollination by moths, &c. : gynoecium syncarpous, with axile placentation,
many ovules (varying to 6-io-mery). Fruit an erected capsule, i in., dehiscing by
valves divergent from central placental shaft ; seeds minute, i mm., winged.

R. campanulatum, evergreen shrub, densely gregarious at the upper limit of trees
(9,000-14,000 ft.): flowers purple in lax corymbs, long-stalked, similar in organization.

II. Primulales, grouped around the European Primula, have been extended to
types in which the ovary presents similar construction with ' free central ' placentation,
based on 5 carpels, with 5 antipet. stamens (Primulaceae, 28/500) : The Plumbagi-
naceae (10/260) include forms reducing to one ovule only in the ovary; ci. Plumbago
(Hort.), Armeria; while the IMyrsinaceae (23/1000) normally retain 10 functional
stamens, or 5 fertile and 5 staminodal. The ovary indicates 5 carpels with many
ovules.

Aegiceras majus (INIyrisinaceae), a small evergreen tree, 20 ft., gregarious in
Rlangrove-forest, presents the viviparous habit. Flowers small, white, 10 mm.,
actinomorphic, with convolute corolla, 5 stamens antipet., the anther loculi transversely
12-15 septate. Fruits 1-2 in. long, curved like horns, i-seeded, the embryro
commonly germinating on the tree.

III. Ebenales include more generalized residual groups, again falling into 3
divergent series as Ebenaceae (5-320), timber-trees with flowers much reduced and
commonly diclinous and apetalous ; Sapotaceae (31/600) trees with latex; and
Styracaceae (61 10) trees with resin; hence many economically important.

Diospyros Ebenn.na (Ebenaceae), ?'.bony Tree of S. India, a large tree of dry
regions, commoner in Ceylon, duramen uniformly and intensely black and hard.
Flowers dioecious, tetramerous ; staminate small and clustered, with 4-toothed calyx
and 8 stamens with unequally paired anthers; carpellary flowers solitary in leaf-axils,
carpels 4. Fruit a sub-globular berry, i in. diam., in persistent woody cup of calyx,
5-8 seeded, with sweet pulp.

D. tnelatioxylon, common in deciduous forest, 50 ft., similar to D. tomcntosa
(with broader leaves) Ebony Trees of N. India, duramen less uniformly black, more
or less gregarious in dry forest. Fruit i in. diam., yellow, seeds 3-8 in sweet pulp,
taken by birds, bats, &c. Stamens simple and endosperm ruminated. D. Kurzii,
Zebra-wood of moist forests of Andamans, large evergreen tree ; flowers diclinous,
tetramerous, corolla 4 mm., velvety externally, fruits \ in. diam.

Sapotaceae include remarkable tree-types with characteristic floral organization,
essentially eucyclic, but ranging to 4-6-8-mery, or with effect of multiple corollas by

33 c

secondary appendages to petals; apparently in some cases the androecium is in more
than two whorls, or the inner series is staminodal. Fruiis as berry-forms with i or
several seeds. The family is essentially tropical, and was based on Sopo/a of Trop.
Amer. the fruit of Achias Sopota, Sapodilla.

Palaquium Gutta, Gutta Percha, a large tree of evergreen forest, Malay :
leaves and shoots with rusty tomentum ; flowers small, clustered in leaf-axUs,
6-merous : stamens 12-18, ovary 6-locular. P . obhngi/oJiuni \ fruiis larger, similar,
exploiied.

P, ellipticum, a tall tree, 100 ft., of W. Ghats (4,000 ft.), Flowers i in., stalked
in the manner i)f Bass/a; stamens 12-18, Fruiis i^ in.

Bassia latifolia (= /////<), a large tree of deciduous fores', of C. Ind., cult.
(Mohwa); leaves and flowers clustered at ends of branches ; flowering on bare stems
with the young leaves ; flowers on 2 in. stalks, with massive fleshy corolla-lube, more
or less drooping, with small floral aperture, soon dropped, and taken by animals.
Calyx of 4-5 free segments, petals 8-10, corolla-tube 8 mm. by 10, and 2 mm. thick,
with small free lobes. Androecium of 16-20(30) stamens in 2 (3) alternating series,
enclosed in corolla-tube. Gynoecium of 8 carpels, 8-loculi, each i ovule : Style
30 mm. projecting from corolla-tube ; honey-secretion copious. Fruit a greenish-
yellow berry, 1-2 in. with 1-4 seeds. Cf. : —

£. hngifoUa, representative species of S. India, essentially similar.

B. Parkii {= Btilyrosperjtium) of W. Africa gives 'butter' from cotyledons of
large seeds ; 8-merous, with 8 functional stamens, and inner series of 8 peialoid stam-
inodes. Fruit with 1 large seed. Cf. B. butyracea of E. Sub-Himalya.

Mimusops Elengi, a large evergreen tree of dry forest of S. India, much cult. ;
Flowers white, fragrant, 1 in. diam. ; calyx 4 -I- 4, corolla of 8 petals, each with 2
peialoid appendages, the former convergent on stamens, tlie latter divergent ; stamens
8 antipet., and 8 alternating staminodes : style simple, ovary with 8 antipet. loculi,
each I ovule. Fruit i in., pale yellow, i-seeded. (The corolla with androecium shed
in one piece, with ' daisy-effect ' in daisy chains.)

M. hexandra, a small evergreen tree of C. and S. India (100 ft. in Ceylon),
much cull.. Flowers 6-merous, \ in. diam., petals yellow, w-ith bilobed while accessory
segments ; stamens 6, and 6 staminodal processes. Fruit \ in., yellow.

M. liltoralis, a large evergreen tree of sand-hill coast-forest of Andamans. flowers
6-merous, fruits i^in., with several seeds.

M. globosa of Trop. S. Amer., Balata, flowers 6-merous of similar construction,
13 mm. diam., daisy-like on long-stalks, petals with paired accessory lobes. Stamens
6 antipet. with 6 staminodes.

INFERAE {Ge7i. Plant., 1876) comprising the most highly organized of the
gamopetalous phyla, presenting the additional specialization of an ' inferior ' ovary
(epigvny), as also the limiting condition of meiocycly (= Telracyclicae) of the type
.'^S-f'oP + sA +2G.

Rubiaceae (346/4500), a remarkable group, founded on the European Rubia
(Madder), and extended to a wide range of tropical trees with opposite leaves and
generalized actinomorphic flowers on these lines. Leaves ' opposite and stipulate '
have been regarded as more essential than reduction of ovary-contents or axile
placentation.

Cinchona ofl&cinalis, evergreen tree of mountain-forest of Andes, cult, in vars.
(Nilgiris); flowers small in red clustered cymes, ,5-merous ; corolla tubular, 15 mm.,
silky, valvate in bud ; style slender, with 2 short stigmatic lobes. Fruit dehiscing by
2 valves, along septa ; seeds many, small and flat, wiih membranous wing on margin.

Hymenodictyon excelsum, a large tree of deciduous forest, leaves simple,
petiolaie ; Flowers white, fragrant, in dense cylindrical panicled systems ; corolla-lube

34

slender; style long, exserted ; motli-lype of pollination. Capsule ^ in., 2-valved,
dehiscing loculicidally ; seeds small, winged marginally.

The Nauclcae comprise a special section with globose aggregated inflorescences
as caj)ilula of closely-packed flowers : —

Anthocephalus Cadamba, a large deciduous tree with soft \vood, of outer hills
anil evergreen forest, planicil ami cult., leaves coriaceous, flower-heads large, terminal
solitary, 1^-2 in. diam., as yellow balls in the manner of PlaUmus. Inflorescence-
receptacle enlarged in fruit to orange fleshy pseudocarp (taken by animals and birds),
with clo-^ely packed capsules ; seeds not winged.

Adina cordifolia, a tall tree, common in deciduous forests, leaves cordate and
acuminate (Pojilar-like) ; flower-heads i in. diam., yellow, corolla 5-merous, hairy.

Stephegyne parvifolia, common deciduous tree of outer Himalya, often
gregarious : I'Mower- heads i in. diam., fragrant, greenish-yellow. Flowers pentame-
rous, corolla-lube 7-8 mm., style long, projecting, 12 mm.; stigma club-shaped;
nectary as conspicuous disc-collar. Fruit-heads globose, \ in., with numerous small
2-valved capsules ; seeds 2 mm., j^ointed and winged at both ends.

Gardenia latifolia, a small tree, floral mechanism on large scale, distinct moth-
type of pollination : corolla pale-yellow, fading orange ; petals 5-9, tube 2-3 in. long.
Fruit 2 in., drupaceous, indehiscent, with thin hard sclerocarp. Seeds numerous on
4-5 parietal placentas.

Coffea arabica (Coff"ee), a small tree, 15 ft., of Trop. E. Africa, cult. ; P'lowers
in axillary clusters, corolla greenish-white, ranging 4-9-merous, tube 6-8 mm., styles
and anthers projecting. Fruit a crimson drupe, \ in. diam., with 2 pyrenae ; sclero-
carp cartilaginous only ; seed 10 mm., with solid horny endosperm.

C. Uberica of \\'. Africa, larger leaves, flowers 6-9-merous ; fruit i in. diam.,
crimson, seeds similar ; disease-resisting.

Compositae (806 13,100) a huge series of predominantly herbaceous types in
temperate regions or on mountain ranges ; without definite timber-trees and of minor
importance in forestry. For shrubby forms (Hort.) cf. Olearia Haastii of New
Zealand. Flowers while in corymbose panicles of few-flowered (7-12) capitula, with
3-5 ray-florets (July).

Vernonia arborea, a small tree, 60 ft., of Hill forest of S. India ; Flowers in
capitula (1-6), all tubular : pappus of white hairs, 6 mm.

Leucomeris spectabilis, a small deciduous tree of NW. Himal3a, bark
white, leaves coriaceous, felted white underneath ; capitula 4-8 flowered, in terminal
corymbose panicle, 6 in. diam.

Blumea balsumi/era, a large aromatic shrub, gregarious, with silky tomentum, in
the manner of Artemisia, Capitula of yellow flowers, A in., clustered in a leafy
panicled system ; pappus red : yields camphor.

Senecio a characteristic genus (1,200 sp.) of great range; involucre of a single
contact-cycle, ray-florels normally present, pappus simple; represented by woody
climbers in Hill-forest.

35 c 2

Angiosp: Dicol: Apetalae. XII.

As APETALAE may be conveniently grouped families in which there is some
suggt'Stivo cviiicncc that the petaloid condition has been lost, and that they may be
more or less related to existing polypelalous forms. In absence of very decisive
evidence, these may include: — Lauraceae, referred to the Polycarpicae near Berberi-
daceae, I\Iyri!«ticaccae near Anonaceae : the great series of the Euphorbiaceae as a
branch of the Kucyclic Di^cilloral section (Geraniales), with the Buxaceae (Sapindales) :
the I'laianaceae as petaloid and apocarpous suggesthe of the Saxifrage-alliance : the
Thymeloaceae as reiluced Discifloral types, and the Chcnopodiaceae generally referred
to the Cenlrosperni series with Caryophyllaceae.

Lauraceae (4o'iooo) founded on Laurus 7iobilis, Bay, of IMedit. region; ever-
green, llowers in decussate clusters, dioecious, dimerous, apetalous ; Staminate flower
of 2 + 2 perianth, and lo stamens (4 + 2 + 2 + 2) with paired glandular ai)pendages
on the 4 inner, and valvate dehiscence of 2 anther-loculi : Carpellary flower of 2 + 2
perianth. 4 siaminodes (diagonal), and gynoecium of i carpel with i suspended ovule.
Fruit a black berry, | in., aromatic, with i seed without endosjjcrm. The family is
extended to a wide range of tropical forest-trees, in which the full type of flower is
hermaphrodite and irimerous, characterized by the peculiar valvate anthers and the
limiting term of the gynoecium.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamon, a large tree of S. India and Ceylon,
cult, and coi)piced ; leaves coriaceous, aromatic ; flowers in panicled clusters, greyish,
5 mm. ; Perianth 3 + 3, stamens 4-locular, 4-va' ved, in alternating series 3 + 3 introrse,
and 3 extrorse, 2-glanded, followed by 3 staminodes. Style and stigma simple, ovary
with one anatropous ovule suspended. The receptacle is crateriform (perigyny), and
the construction suggests a relic of a once more complex organization. Fruit a dark-
purple berry, i in. long, taken by birds.

C. Tamala, Cassia-Cinnamon, evergreen tree of E. Sub-Himalya, with glossy
aromatic leaves. Flowers yellowish-white, 6 mm. diam. ; Berry black, \ in., fragrant.

Cf. C. CiuupJiora, a large tree of Japan and forests of Formosa (100 ft.), cult. ;
camphor distilled from all parts.

Machilus bombycina, Soom, gregarious in valley-forest of Assam, largely
cult. (Muga-silk) ; flowers of similar type. Perianth 10 mm. ; berry i in,

Litsaea polyantha, a tree of Sub-Himalya, also associated with Soom and
cull. ; Flowers trimerous but dioecious, in decussate groups of 5 (in the manner of
Laurus) ; stamens all introrse and 4-valved ; carpellary flowers of 3 + 3 perianth and
typical ovary. Fruit on elongated pedicels and appearing clustered.

If. zeylanica (= Tch-adcuia), a small evergreen tiee of Hill-forest, S. Ind. and
Ceylon : Flowers in compact axillary clusters, perianth 4-lobed, stamens 6, 2 innermost
biglaiidular, all 4-valved.

Beilschmiedia Roxburghiana, evergreen tree of Assam, &c. ; Flowers herm-
aphrodite, irimerous ; Perianth 3 + 3, 10 mm. long ; stamens 3 + 3 introrse, 3 extrorse,
and 3 staminodes, tlie 3rd whorl bigiandular (as in Cinnamon), but the anthers dehisce
by 2 valves only (as in J.aurus). Ovary l)pical, fruit about i in.

Myristica fragrans, isolated type of INIyrisiicaceae, following similar extreme
phases of reduction. Evergreen tree (30-60 ft.) of E. Indies, and cult. : Staminate
flowers in panicled cymes, perianth trimerous, gamophyllous, and a staminal column
with 20 or so fused anthers : carpellary flower of perianth including i carpel with
I basal anatropous ovule : Fruit a large yellow berry-form, 2 in., with i large seed
(NutmcL') with ruminated endosperm and scarlet fenestrated aril (Mace).

Euphorbiaceae, a series of Eucyclic Geraniales, in all stages of diclinous
specialization : Staminate flowers may be wholly aberrant, and the carpellary flower
attains the limit of a Tricoccus-fruit of characteristic construction, syncarpous,
superior, of 3 carpels, with 2 (or i) suspended ovules in each loculus, raphe internal,
and 3 style-branches (oflen bifid) ; Fruit normally a dry dehiscent, explosive, capsule,

36

3-seeded : Endosperm stores oil, and the seeds show a ' caruncle ' as a cap over the
micropyle.

A vast order (208/4500) with many forest-trees, though not of Ihst-class timber
production, ranging to desert-succulents (leafless and with spiny stipular thorns) and
herbaceous forms of N. Temp, woodland {iM ere una I is). The genus Euphorbia (600)
as the extreme case (with Cyathium) affords little idea of the entire series. The
structure of the gynoecium is most constant : cf. Mereurialis with 2 carpels ; 5 carpels,
antipet., in Wielaudia of Seychelles ; more indefmite in Ilura. Though predominantly
apetalous, many genera retain petals; as a series typically fly-pollinated. As special
feature note stipules and their relation to extrafloral nectaries. For more elementary
stage of flower, cf. first : —

Jatropha Curcas, herbaceous form of Trop. Amer., cult. ; Flowers in axillary
panicles, small, of Discifloral habit : staminate flower 5 sep., 5 pet., 5 -}- -, stamens and
5 extrastaminal disc-lobes : carpellary flower 5 sep., j-^ pet., disc-lobes and slaminode
rudiments, ovary with 3 branched stigmatic lobes and 3 loculi each i-seeded: fruit
a capsule, \\ in.

Manihot Glaziovii, Ceara Rubber, of drier tracts of Brazil, cult, in less humid
stations than Hevea. Leaves palmately cut in 5-7 deep segments ; flowers monoecious
in terminal panicles, i in. ; staminate flower apetalous, 5 sep. as gamo[)hyllous bell,
purplish inside, 5 -I- 5 stamens and 10 yellow disc-lobes; carpellary flower gamosep.
of 5 segments. Fruit i in. diam. with polished mottled seeds.

M. utilissima, Manioc (Tapioca),

Hevea brasiliensis, Para rubber, a large evergreen tree of Amazon swamp-
forest, leaves trifoliate ; flowers, small (5 mm.) in large panicles ; staminate flower
5 sep. and 5-f 5 stamens as anthers sessile on central 'column'; nectary as lo-lobed
disc : carpellary flower of gamosep. calyx and ovary with bilobed stigmas and 3 ovules.
Fruit a large tricoccus-capsule, 2 in., seeds large (i in.) mottled as in Rieinus.

Ricinus communis, soft-wooded tree of Trop. Africa, cult, as annual for Castor
Oil. Leaves large, jxilmately lobed; inflorescences axillary, reduced to few-flowered
panicles: staminate flower of 5 sep. and a multibranched androecial region (15 mm.)
with anthers on all end-ramuli (one of the most aberrant staminate constructions) :
carpellary flower a conspicuous tricoccus-ovary with shaggy or spinous emergences.
Capsule explosive, seeds mottled, with distinct caruncle, well-defined embryo, endo-
sperm with oil and aleurone.

Cp. Hura <:vr/>/A7//i-, Sand-box tree of W. Indies ; carpels 15-20, capsule explosive,
3 in. diam.

Bischofia javanica (= irifoliatci), deciduous tree of damp forest of Sub-
Himalya. Flowers dioecious, apetalous ; staminate flower of 5 sepals and 5 super-
posed stamens, no disc-lobes, but a rudimentary central column : carpellary flower
with ovary 3-locular and linear styles. Capsule a globose, succulent berry, \ in.
diam., with parchment-like sclerocarp.

Bridelia retusa, a large tree of deciduous forest, leaves coriaceows, elliptical ;
Flowers yellow, cluriered on slender spikes ; staminate flower with 5 stamens on
slight column, and conspicuous disc : carpellary with 2-locular ovary and bifid styles.
Fruit a drupe. \ in., sweet, purple-black, edible, and taken by birds.

Mallotus philippinensis, a small evergreen tree of Sub-Himalya, common in
Sal forest ; Flowers dioecious, 5 mm., in panicled spikes ; staminate flower with
20-30 stamens ; carpellary with conspicuous papillose sessile stigmas. Capsule
3-lobed, covered with glandular hairs secreting a red resin (Kamela-powder giving an
orange dye).

Sapium sebiferum, Chinese Tallow tree, cult, in NW. ; flowers in spicate
racemes, monoecious, with the carpellary flower at the base of the spike ; style with
3 long spreading stigmas ; staminate flower of 2 stamens only and perianth rudi-
mentary. Capsule with 3 seeds, a thick layer of fatty material surrounding them.

Putranjiva Roxburghii, evergreen tree of river-banks, cult., leaves coriaceous,

Z1

flowers dioeciouti. Staminate flower ol 3 sep. and 3 stamens; carpellary with 3
enlarged papillose stigmas. Fruit a drupe, taken by deer, with one characteristically
rugose 'stone' (necklaces), sclcrocarp very hard, splitting on germination, i-seeded.

Excoecaria Agallocha, a small evergreen halojjhytic tree of Sundribans and
tidal forest, 40 It. ; llowors minute ; staminate in yellowish-green catkins with long
stamens 3 ; carpellary 3-merous. Capsule to i in. diam., 3-lobed, and separating
into 3 cocci from central a.xis. Latex blistering.

Cleistanthus coUinus, a small tree of S. India, on dry rocky ground, as
coppice. Flowir> yellowish-green in small axillaiy dusters. Capsule ^ in., woody
with 3 ^eel!s.

Fhyllanthus Emblica, common tree of mixed deciduous forest with light
feathery foliage ; leaves small and pectinated on D.V. twigs, looking like pinnate
leaves when young, and shed as phyllomorphs. Staminate flower 6-parted with
6-lobed disc. Carpellary with 2 ovules in each loculus. Fruit globose, fleshy, ^ in.
with 6-ridgcd sclerocarp and 6 seeds. Fruits collected as Fmblic IMyrobalans.

Buxaceae (6 30). based on Bu.xus of S. Europe, dift'ers in floral organization,
also diclinous (monoecious), apetalous ; evergreen, with decussate leaves and reduced
axillary racemes : staminal flower dimerous with 4 stamens ; carpellary terminal, of
3 carpels with 3 divergent stigma-lobes ; 2 ovules suspended in each loculus, raphe
external. Fruit a dry capsule, discharging 6 seeds ; seed with a small caruncle :
cf. Bu.xiis scmperviran (Hort.) and B. Wallichiana, very similar in Hill-forest,
Ilimalya, at 4000 ft.

Platanaceae (1/6), based on Platanus, Plane, now generally accepted as
petaloid with minute petals, diclinous with reduced construction.

P. oricntaUs, a large deciduous tree, cult., NW. Himalya ; leaves deeply 5-7
lobed : fruiting capitula spherical, \\ in. diam., 5-6 in one system. Achenes hairy,
I -seeded, wind-tiispersed.

Hernandiaceae (4/24), a small series of trees with anomalous characters,
apetalous, the reduced flowers with irregular number of parts. The anthers dehisce
by 2 valves, and the ovary is inferior with i suspended ovule ; commonly included
near Lauraceae (Engler. 1891).

Gyrocarpus americanus, a deciduous soft-wooded tree of sea-coast throughout
the tropics : flowers in dense clusters on panicled systems of many staminate and few
hermaphrodite: the latter of 4-parted perianth and sessile stigma. In fruit 2 larger
perianth-segments extend as leafy lobes, 2-3 in. long, at the end of the ovoid velvety
fruit, ^ in., to constitute spinning-mechanism suggestive of a Dipterocarp.

3«

Angiosp : Dicot: IMonochlnmvdoac — l^rticalc?. XIII.

MONOCHLAMYDEAE include groups in whicli the noral organization is
apparently primitively • apetalous ', in the sense that the essential floral organs are
invested by a simple perianth as one contact-cycle of protective leaf-members. In all
cases associated features of extreme reduction prevail in the general construction
(dicliny, dimery, trimery), and may be combined with extreme specialization in the
gynoecium (tiicliny, dimery, syncarpy, inferior ovary, and reduced output of ovules
and seeds). Such phenomena suggest that little reliance can be placed on these
features as indicating primitive nature, and many extreme cases remain so isolated
that any serial arrangement is wholly arbitrary. The individual families are usually
distinguished by some one dominant character, the exact bearing of which may be
wholly vague, A rough distinction may always be drawn between types with simple
floral receptacle and those in which epigyny has been attained, and special cases of
gynoecium-elaboration may be isolated.

Urticales (Kngler, 1912, = Uriicinae, P^ichler, 1878), a large section con-
veniently grouped around the familiar Uriica (Sting Nettle) of the N. Temp., and
extended to include a vast series of types characterized by advanced flowers (pre-
dominantly diclinous and dioecious, apetalous and dimerous) with the gynoecium as
the limit of syncarpy (2 carpels), still ' superior ', but containing only i ovule, and
setting I -seeded indehiscent fruits.

I. In the Urticaceae (41/500) the ovule is typically orthotropous with basal
placentation, as the most special case; few are shrubby. Tiopical herbaceous
Nettles sting badly {U. stimtdans, U. nreniissiina).

Laportea crenulata, a small tree of Hill-forest, very virulent; leaves elliptic,
may be entire ; flowers small (3 mm.) in loose axillary panicles, aU parts with stinging
hairs. Girardinia zeylanica, fibres as textile retain ' stinging ' properties.

Boehmeria nivea (Ramie, Rhea) of Malay, cult., monoecious, herbaceous and
shrubby, cult, for fibre of annual shoots (6-10 ft.), leaves serrate, with drip-tip;
important textile.

II. Ulmaceae (13/132), based on UlmuSjYAm, with small clusters oi hermaphro-
dite flowers, produced in spring before the leaves, of pentamerous type (per. 5,
stamens 5, carpels 2), with i ovule suspended, micropyle upward; fruit a winged
samara, seed without endosperm : cf. : —

Ulmus Wallichiana, a large deciduous tree of NW. Himalya (at 1-2 miles
elevation) in damp ravines. Flowers in globose clusters, perianth 4 mm. ; samara
■| in. diam. with seed centred.

Holoptelea integrifolia, a large deciduous tree of Sub-Himalya and hill-
regions, with entire leaves ; flowers hermaphrodite and staminale only, in loose mixed
racemes : samara i in. diam., on an elongated stalk, i in., no distal notch.

Celtis australis, deciduous tree of NW. Himalya and S. Europe, cult. ;
flowers small, the hermaphrodite solitary or in pairs, axillary : fruit a drupe, -I in., red
or black, sweet.

T-vema orientalis, a small short-lived tree, of NW. Himalya, and cult. ;
coming up in clearings of damp forest : Howers mixed in axillary clusters ; Fruit
a small black drupe (4 mm.) with persistent per. segs.

III. Moraceae (55/900), a tree-series, with latex, the flowers small and
aggregated into complex condensed cymose inflorescences which may end in taking
on the mechanism for pollination. Individual florets then reduce to extreme limits,
but the superior ovary retains two stigmas and one suspended anatropous ovule ;
fruits as minute achenes or drupes commonly become united in a succulent
aggregated fruit-mass giving pseudocarps of very striking character and of economic
value.

Morus alba, White Mulberry, a deciduous tree of W. and Central Asia,
commonly cult. N. India, for silk-industry, and with Sissoo : flowers monoecious,

39

often on distinct branches ; carpellaiy flowers with 4 per. scg. ; in fruit these enlarge
and enclose the drupe-fruit, becoming united in a succulent aggiegated edible mass.
Cf. iJ/. /rn/ua, of E. and S. India, cult, for silkworm, fruits dark-purple.

Broussonetia papyrifera (Hort.) Paper-Mulberry, a small deciduous tree,
Burma, dioecious; stamiiiate flowers in pendulous catkins, 4 per. seg., and 4 inflexed
stamens ; car[iollary inllorcscence, spherical, ^ in., with closely aggregated perianths
and elongated filiform pink stigmas. In fruit the inflorescence-receptacle enlarges,
and the achcnes liang out on (leshy stalks.

Antiaris toxicaria (= Sijrc/i/ora) Upas Tree, an enormous tree (250 ft.) of
evergreen forest, W. Ghats, &c., with buttressed stem, soft wood ; flowers monoecious,
the staminate on a mushroom-shaped receptacle (i in. diam.) and sunk in depres-
sions ; stamens 3-8 ; carpellary flower solitary in leaf-axils, with involucre of bracts
and 2 long styles : fruit drupaceous, -J in.

Artocarpus incisa, Bread-fruit of Pacific Islands, cult, over Tropics : leaves
large, (Iccjjly cut. flowers in massive inflorescences, much reduced ; staminate system
club-shaped, pendulous, with flowers reduced to i stamen in 2-4-lobed perianth :
carpellary inflorescences sub-spherical, flowers sunk under convergent perianth-lobes,
with ovary well below the surface, the elongated style, filiform, bilobed, and projecting
at the surface. Fly-pollinated ; in fruit tlie inflorescence forms a large spheroidal
mass with starch-storage and smooth areolate surface, 6-10 in. diam.; seeds immersed.

A. integrifolia, Jack Fruit of W. Ghats, cult.; staminate inflorescence 2-6 in.
long., fruit rough, with conoidal projections of enlarged perianth-scgs. (i in.) for each
flower, to size of large Marrow (30 in.) : cf. also : —

A. hirsuta, timber-tree of evergreen forests of W. Ghats, to 200ft.; staminate
inflorescence slender, 3-4 in., ultimately pendulous; carpellary inflorescence i in.
diam., in fruit 3-4 in., densely covered with hispid spines : seeds f in.

A. Chciplasha, a large deciduous tree of Sub-Himalya and S. Hill-forest, the
globose pseudocarps, 3-4 in., edible, with few large seeds (^ in.) taken by birds and
monkeys. A. Lakoocha of il ill-forest, cult., fruit globose, irregularly lobed, with
orange pulp and seeds \ in., taken by monkeys and birds.

Ficus (600), the culminating genus of the series ; inflorescence with dicHnous
reduced flowers assuming a chamber-mechanism with narrow ostiole, through which
small insects enter for pollination ; in this way the inflorescence-cavity becomes
a domicile, and the flowers are utilized by ' gall '-insects, eggs being laid in the
ovaries of flowers specially adapted as ' gall '-flowers, the larva replacing the ovule.

In the simplest case (^r^j//^;//(7-section) staminate flowers, carpellary, and gall-
flowers are all mixed in the same chamber-system, which subsequently becomes
a pseudocarp enclosing the small drupes of the individual flowers. Production
is continuous, or becomes more or less seasonal in dry forest, and the generations of
the insect are correlated with the production of flowers ; 79 sp. Indian.

Ficus bengalensis, Bor (Banyan), of Sub-Himalya and S. India, greatly
planted, to 100 ft. high, with descending aerial roots as 'props '; epiphytic as a seedling
with descending roots to soil, growing freely from cutdngs. Given time there seems
to be no limit to lateral extension (^assisted). Calcutta tree, seedling of 1 782, 100 yds.
diam. and 464 props, 1900. Nerbudda tree, covering nearly i sq. mile. Attaining
great age, 2,200 yrs. recorded. Staminate flower of i stamen, carpellary with
I stigma-lobe more pronounced. Fruit small, globose, |-f in., scarlet when ripe.
Host-trees become ' /vW^-bound '.

F. religiosa, Peepul, a large spreading tree of Sub-Himalya, much planted and
growing from suckers. Tree of Budh-Gya from 500 b. c. Foliage like Poplar,
tremulous, with long drip-tips, 1-2 in.; epiphytic or on buildings. Fruits -|- in. diam.,
dark purple.

F. infectoria, large deciduous tree of N. and Central India, figs small, \ in.

F. elastica, India Rubber, gigantic evergreen tree, 100-150 ft. and crown to
200 ft. diam. : germination epiphytic, trunk buttressed, roots spreading on soil

40

(150 ft.) and anastomosing, aerial roots descending, leaves coriaceous, i ft. or more
long : figs, ^ in., yellow, taken by birds.

F. glonuTiUa of Xconiorphe-s>ic\\on, with staminaie flower of 2 stamens. A
common large deciduous tree in ravines and damp places ; all types of flower in same
receptacle, fruits nearly globose, i^ in. diam., clustered on the leafless branches and
spurs of older wood. Commonly lull of insects ; taken by monkeys and deer.

F. tnacrocarpa, a climbing shrub of Hill-forest, with large fruits to 2| in. diam.,
while spotted green, clustered on the old wood.

F. Carica, common Fig {Eiisyce-%<tc\\ovi), more primitive in the individual
flowers, but much further advanced in seasonal adaptation (the form farthest north)
to a colder extra-tropical climate, with limiting case of insect-association and marked
deciduous habit. A large tree of E. Medit. and W. Asia, cult., growing freely from
cuttings, and fruiting as a shrub. Staminaie flower with perianth of 5 teeth and
stamens 5 (4-7) : carpellary flower with long style, 2 mm., and one stigmaiic lobe
rudimentary : Gall-flowers have styles of half the length, correlated with that of
ovipositor of Blas/ophago wasp. Fruits as minute drupes with sharply angular
sclerosed ' stone '.

In INIedit. region 3 crops of figs follow the annual succession, and 3 generations of
gall-wasps, (i) Spring-crop {Profichi) of basal gall-flowers and staminaie flowers
produced later near the ostiole, borne on the old wood with the young leaves.
(2) Summer crop on new growth, of few gall-flowers and mostly carpellary flowers,
giving the edible fruit-crop. (3) Autumn set with gall-flowers and a few carpellary.
The 3 crops act practically as staminate, carpellary fruiting, and a perennating stock,
respectively. Only cross-fertilized figs of (2) give good commercial 'figs' with fertile
seeds. Seedlings come up as 'Wild Figs' with Profichi fruit. Cuttings oiProfichi-
branches remain as staminate ' Caprifigs ', used for pollination. Cuttings of fruiting
figs (= var. dofnesiica) cult, in this country, without BlasiopJiaga, give inferior but
edible pseudocarps without seeds.

41

Anuiosp : Dicot : Monoclil.imvdoai* — Cupulifenu-, Sec. XIV.

CUPU LI FERAE {Gt/i. Plant., 1880), include fomilies of Monochlamydeous
series with ivduced flowers (tending to Irimery, dinicry, dicliny, and anemophily), with
inflore^ce^ces more or less of catkin-habit and characteristic protective investments
of the developing fruit as ' cupules ', &c. (Fagaceae, Betulaceae). With these may be
associateil other stray residual series distinguished by different modes of ovary-
organization (superior or inferior, with axile, parietal, or basal placentation) — ■
Juglandaceae, Salicaceae — all witli representatives in the British Flora, as also tropical
Casuarinaccae. Any evidence of a former petaloid state is wholly wanting.

I. Betulaceae, flowers in calkins, monoecious, dimerous ; carpellary flower with
ovary of 2 cupels, each loculus i ovule : fruit a nut with i seed, retaining traces of
endosperm, and storing fat : subtending bracts and prophylls more or less retained as
protective investment of fruit; cf. Betnla, Alniis, Cory I us, Carpinus, Ostrya of
N. Temp., with representative sp. in Himalya at 2 miles elevation — Betiila utili's at
the limit of trees ; Aliiiis 7ii/ida. a large tree at lower elevations, and Carpinus viminea
near streams.

Corylus Colurna, a moderate-sized deciduous tree of NW. Himalya, often
gregarious ; staniinate catkins abundant, pendulous, 4 in. ; fruits in large clusters
with laciniite cupule-involucre, enclosing small nuts with thick shells.

II, Fagaceae : Flowers monoecious, trimcious ; carpellary flower with 3 (6)
carpels, a.xile placentation, 2 ovules per loculus; fruit a nut, i-seeded, without endo-
sperm, cotyledons store starch — cf. Quercus, Fagus, Castanea of N. Temp, flora.
Fagus does not occur, and Castanea only as introduction. Quercus is at its optimum
in Hill-forest, 37 sp. ; cf. NW. Himalyan types: —

Quercus incana, White Oak, Ban, gregarious in NW. Himalya at 4,000-
8,000 ft. (Simla level), with Rhododendron, Deodar and Pinus. A large evergreen
tree, 60-80 ft., dull-green leaves, coriaceous, serrated, and white below, 3-6 in. ;
Acorns solitary or in pairs, i in. long, ovoid, conical, pointed, in small rough woody
cupule, fruiting 15 months from flowering, and so borne on previous season's wood,

Q. dilatata, Green Oak, Moru, at elevations of 7,000-9,000 ft, (English level),
semi-gregarious, in ravines with Picea Morinda, &c. ; Leaves coriaceous, shining,
serrations jagged and pointed, nearly evergreen. Fruits, pointed, i in., nearly sessile,
in normal cupule, iin. diam. ; Fruiting 15-17 months after flowering,

Q. semecarpifolia, Brown Oak, Kharshu, more deciduous ; older leaves
entire, 2-4 in., coriaceous, brown underneath, gregarious in upper zone of 8,000-
12,000 ft, (Alpine level) with Birch, Yew, &c. ; staminate catkins in bunches, 2-6 in,
long; fruits solitary, taking 15 months, i in, diam., black, with rounded end, in thin
shallow cups with pointed scales. Cf, also of special interest : —

Q. lamellosa, Buk, of E. Himalya (Darjeeling), 100-120 ft.; acorns 2-3 in.
diam., almost immersed in woody cupule, with about lo concentric lamellar ring-
growths.

Q. Griffithii of Assam and Burma, a large deciduous and gregarious tree, acorn
more cylindrical, on short spikes ; also with remarkable scaly galls, to \\ in,

Q. spicata, Pasania-\.y^^, a large evergreen tree, with shining leaves of
Castama-\.)YQ ; staminate calkins erect, in long panicled systems, lo 8 in. ; carpellary
systems with many triads (30); in fruit to a foot long, with to 100 shining acorns,
cup \-i in. diam. As extreme case cf. : —

Q. magnifica, in evergreen forest of Shan States, woody cupule |^ in. thick, and
acorn woody, \ in. thick wall, and lobed cotyledons.

Castanopsis tribuloides, evergreen tree of ¥.. Himalya and Hill- forest, more
or less gregarious; leaves coriaceous, entire; staminate catkins erect, in terminal
systems, in the manner of Cas/anea ; carpellary calkin with numerous triads, each
with spinous cupule of Castanea type; in fruit to 10 in. long, with many burr-cupules,

42

I in. diam., spines long (^ in.) and stellately branched ; included nuts, 2-3, cotyledons
ruminated.

Juglandaceae (6, 33) rcprostntative of a wliolly isolated series, based on Jiiglatis
regi\i, ^^'alIlut, indigenous to Ilinialya and 1'".. Kurope, cult.; deciduous and mon-
oecious: staminatc flowers in racemose catkins from last season's wood: carpellary
systems few-flowered ; perianth 2 + 2, carpels (stigmas) 2, ovary inferior, with r basal
ovule centred and orthotropous. Fruit drupaceous, with remarkably lobed embryo,
moulded to the shape of 4 diagonal tracts in the ovary-wall, storing fat. Sclerocarp
of fruit wiUi traces of loculicitlal dehiscence (two shells), very haril in the wild form.

Engelhardtia spicata, a large tree often gregarious in Hill-districts, leaves
compountl ; staminatc flowers in slender calkins, 3-7 in. long; carpellary systems
pendulous, 6-12 in., with densely papillose sligmatic branches. Bract and prophylls
as involucre above inferior ovary. Fruit a small i-sceded nut, with lobcd cotyledons
to seed. The involucre grows to a 3-lobed leafy expansion (suggestive o{ Corphms),
the middle lobe (/>) ig-in. long, as a spinning ' wing'.

Salicaceae (2/200) including only Salix and Popuhis with representative
species of tharacteristic appearance and habit. Common British forms also as intro-
ductions.

Salix tetrasperma, the common type, general along river-bed?, often gre-
garious : staminatc catkins after the leaves, 2-4 in. long; flowers with 5-10 stamens;
carpellary catkins 3-5 in. ; fruits with few (4-6) seeds.

.S'. hahyhnica. Weeping Willow, indig. to China, cult, in N., staminatc tree
commoner.

Populus ciliata, common in NW. Himalya, typical Poplar-habit, at 1-2 miles
elevation, a tall deciduous tree with viscid buds exuding balsam, leaves cordate, finely
ciliate; carpellary catkin 6-12 in. long, ovary with 3-4 carpels (rarely 2).

P. euphratica, gregarious in Sind, over Tamarisk, and by rivers ; leaves very
variable in shape and lobing ; stammate flower with 8-10 stamens; capsule com-
monly o:' 3 carpels, to \ in.

Casiiarinaceae (1, 25) a monotypic genus of halophytic tropical trees with no
functional leaves : Shoot-systems Equisetoid, with the appearance of a Conifer :
Assimilatory ridged stems with whorls of scales (6-15), end-ramuli shed as phyllo-
morphs. Flowers reduced to extreme limits : staminatc flowers of i stamen, in whorlcd
series, resembling erect calkins : carpellary flowers similarly whoi'led, in axil of bract,
with prophylls (a and /?) as protective involucre. Gynoecium of 2 carpels (bilobed
stigma), unilocular ovary with 2 superposed ovules : fertilization chalazogamic, also
the ovules develop large numbers of megaspores, many with prothallial mechanism,
but only one seed sets. The prophylls when sclerosed give a woody whorled cone-
like aggregate, and the ovary with median wing-extension to the style is a small
samaroid nut (spinning). The enclosed seed has no endos[)erm. (Often regarded
as a primitive, if not the most ' primitive ' Angiosperm, and hence often at the
beginning of the classification (Engler, Dicots., 19 12).)

Casuarina eqmsetifolia, a tall tree, 100 ft. or more, of sand-hills and strand-
forest throughout Malay and S. India, to tide-level, cult, and planted. Photosynthciic
ramuli 6-8-ridged and furrowed: monoecious, cones small, fin., cylindrical with
about 60 fruits ; seed with stylar wing 6 mm.

Santalaceae (26/250), an order of essentially tropical trees with few representa-
tives in N. Temp. {T/icsium, herbaceous). Flowers, small, hermaphrodite, apetalous,
5-4-merous : perianth may be gamophyllous and tubular, the ovary inferior, with
basal placenta bearing i or more ovules without integuments ; Fruit i -seeded : many
are hemi- or holo-parasilic.

Santalum album. Sandalwood, a small evergreen tree (40-50 ft.) of S. India,
cult., gregarious in scrub-forest in Mysore, hemiparasitic on roots of adjacent plants:
leaves opposite, flowers brownish-purple in small axillary and terminal panicles,

43

4-merous; stamens 4, alternating with lobed outgrowths of receptacle-cup ; ovary
with central placenta filling cavity, and rudimentary ovules. Fruit a small drupe, -lin,
diam., with hard i -seeded sclerocarp, taken by birds.

Loranthaceae (21/850), a group of hemiparasitic shrubs of tropical forest
{Nttyisuj of W. Australia, 30 ft., non-parasitic), leaves opposite, flowers trimerous, in
dichasial or triad-systems. Full type 3 -1- 3 perianth, 3 -1- 3 stamens, and gynoecium
of 3 carpels, but so reduced that there is now no ovary-cavity or ovules ; the embryo-
sacs arise in the fused parenchymatous tissue, or the cavity is indicated by mere slits
following the case of San/alum. The fruits specialize as bird-distributed ' berries ',
the seeds being represented by masses of endosperm witli included embryos: cf.
indig. V'iscuin album (]\listletoe) as last northern stray, and Lorau/hus, 300.

liOranthus longifloi'us, commonest Indian form, a large parasitic bush on
Sal, Mango, and even C'hir. Leaves broad and coriaceous, flowers in unilateral
racemes, perianth-tube to 2^ in. long, slightly curved, scarlet or orange, bird-pollinated,
with 5 free segments reflexed ; filaments inserted on perianth-tube, with anthers pro-
jecting, style 55 mm., to the level of the anthers; Berry oblong with viscid pulp,
"I in., bird-dispersed in the manner of Mistletoe. Vi'scum album common on Olive and
Qucrcus Ihw in N\V. hill-forest, dioecious and fly-pollinated.

Arceuthobium minutissimum, a minute parasite on Pinus excelsa, shoots
articulated, green, almost mo>s-like, -^ in. ; another extreme case of reduction,
dioecious; siaminate flower with monothecic anthers on segments of perianth (4-5),
the carpellary flowers only just emerging from the bark. The smallest Dicot. plant.

Proteaceae (-,01 100), a remarkably isolated family (Proteales, Engler, 191 2)
of trees and shrubs, characteristic in S. Hemisphere (Australia, S. Africa), a few
extending North {Hclicia) of Malay and S. India, H. lanci/oh'a, S.Japan, the farthest
North. Flowers of very uniform organization, very distinctive, usually 4-merous,
with 4 stamens carried upon individual zones of growth with superposed perianth-
segs., and so appearing ' inserted ' on them. Gynoecium of a single superior carpel
(and so far an ancient apocarpous series), with many, few, or i ovule. The plants
commonly present extreme xeromorphic adaptations ; the flowers may be highly
conspicuous and bird-pollinated, the fruits massive woody pods.

Grevillea robusta, Silky Oak of E. Australia, cult., a large tree with com-
pound leaves, bipinnately segmented. Flowers golden-yellow in clustered racemes
(3-4 in.) on short spur-shoots. Fruit a coriaceous follicle, f in., with 1-2 seeds.

44

Angiobp : ^ronocotyledons — Palmae. XV.

MONOCOTYLEDONS, a large section of Angiospeinis collateral with
modern Dicots., convergent only in retention of an older phase of Monoclilani\deous
state of tloral organization, ami comprising a large number of widely divergent
series expressing most advanced phases of specialization in some respects, and of
further reductions in others, in somatic organization as well as in floral construction.
The tree-phyla (Palms) have no cambial increase of timber, and the stems arc
predominantly 7)toiiaxial ; but this is counterbalanced by the immense size of the
foliage-leaves, and freely-branched inflorescence-systems. All tend to the limiting
condition of a trimerous eucyclic type of flower — passing to extreme phases of reduc-
tion in anemophilous inflorescence-aggregates (Grasses), or to the extreme elaboration
of individual entomophilous floral mechanisms (Orchids). The single cotyledon of
the seedling, indicated as characteristic of the class as a whole, is comparable with
the single posterior 2 -keeled prophyll of the vegetative laterals in many types, as
a specialized gamophyllous structure replacing two initial primordia.

I. Palmae (128/1000), typically monaxial arboreal lorms, with leaf-lamina
secondary on a hooded petiolate scale-base, plaited fan-wise and segmented by the
decay of strips of surface-tissue (palmate-type), to be subsequently elongated on a
rachis-growth (pinnate-type). Wholly entire leaves occur {Corjpha; King Palm,
and juvenile states); bipinnalion in Caryota; basal pinnules are commonly spinous,
subserving xerophytic bud-protection of the apex ; the leaves spirally arranged, with
persistent leaf-bases (similarly protective), or abstricted with clean annular scars.

Iiijiorescence-sy stems, terminal or axillary, retain older more generalized rami-
fication-schemes, to multibranched panicles (30 ft.) with thousands of flowers (to
600,000), or reduce to cymose systems on condensed spadix-growths : large pro-
tective bracts of leaf-base construction (spathes) may subserve protection of younger
parts or developing fruits.

The growth-period is often monocarpic with T-par.icle. Lianoid forms present
extended internodes [Ca/a?/ius) with spiny ' lora' as leaf-rachis or inflovescence-axis.
The monaxial stem may reduce to a rosette-habit, with crown of fronds in the
manner of a Cycad {Phoenix acaulis) or may become rhizomatous at the surface or
subterranean in the manner of advanced ferns {Nipa, swamp-type, Nannorhops,
desert xerophyte).

Flowers, trimerous, and commonly much reduced, tending to dicliny with limit
in dioecism, fundamentally of eucyclic type, per. 3 + 3, and. 3 + 3, gyn. 3, apocarpous
to typically syncarpous, with floral output reduced to i seed per loculus, and com-
monly restricted to i seed per flower in a berry or drupaceous fruit. The seeds
store fat in endosperm-tissue, or celluloses in its walls, the endosperm simple, in-
complete with cavity, or ' ruminated '. The stems may store large reserves of starch.
Xeromorphic specializations of all kinds commonly prevail in all vegetative and
reproductive parts. The range of type in such an isolated series is so great that
classification by one character more than another is wholly empirical. Forms with
older palmate leaves seem more archaic on the whole, as comparatively few and
residual, though advanced in other respect.s. The family is essentially tropical of
moist regions but may range to dry tracts {Naimorhops^ with external xeromorphic
details. Chamaerops huniilis, a bushy form, 20 ft., alone extends to Europe (with
Phoenix as introduction in Greece, &c.). Hardy Chinese forms will flower in the
open in S. of England.

Phoenix dactylifera, Date Palm of SW. Asia and Sahara, to 120 ft., monaxial
with pinnate foliage (7-12 ft.), stem clothed with old leaf-bases, dioecious. In-
florescence much branched, axillary ; staminate flower with 6 stamens ; carpellary
flower of 3 -|- 3 perianth, inner series protective, 5 mm., and 3 carpels, apocarpous
with distinct stigmas. Fruit as 3 berries, 1-3 in., each wiih i elongated seed (i in.);

45

the small embryo half-way along- the seed, and the endosi)eini horny wiili thick
cellulose walls. Cult, in vars. and |)roj)agated by suckers.

P. sylvestris of India, on low ground and along river-banks, gregarious and
lult., tapped; 40 ft., similar in habit, leaves 7-15 ft., fruit i in.

P. acatdis common in forests of Sal, Chir, and Kng. Stem an ovoid tuber.

Chamaerops humilis, a bushy foim, 20 ft., with jjalmate leaves, stout stem
and tultctl growth ; the gynoecium of 3 carpels slightly cohering below, each with
stigma, only one sot seed. As great monocarpic type cf. : —

Corypha umbraculifera, Talipot Palm, Ceylon and S. India, cult., to 80 ft.,
and 2\ ft. diam. annulate, growing 17-40 years, leaves 8-16 ft. diam., palmate, cut
in 80-100 segments, 6 in. wide, and halfway down. Terminal panicle 10-20 ft.,
l>yramiilal ; flowers hermaphrodite, ovary 3-lobed, 3-locular ; Fruit of i carpel-lobe,
i-^ in. diam,. drupaceous, globose; seed 18 mm., with small embryo in horny
uniform cnilospeini with thick cellulose walls; output i ton of seeds.

C. Taliiia, representative sp. in Bengal, leaves cut less than half-way down.

Borassus flabellifer, Palmyra Palm of Trop. Africa, cult., to 100 ft. and 2 ft.
diam., annulate ; leaves on long stalks, palmate, 3-5 ft. diam., cut in 60-80 segments.
Dioecious, inflorescence of massive raniuli (spadiccs) with close-set bract-scales and
the staminate flowers in small cymose clusters, immersed under scales and emerging
one at a lime to function: carpellary flowers large (i in.) immersed, the stigmas
alone protruding, ovary with separate loculi. Fruit a massive fibrous drupe,
6 in. diam., with 3 large jiyrcnac in sarcocarp-pulp ; seed incompletely filled with
horny endosperm.

Lodoicea Seychellai'um, Double Coconut, monotype of Seychelles Is,, to
120 ft., pahiiaie leaves, socket-base, dioecious: staminate spadix, 3 ft., flowering
continuously for several years : carpellary flower 3-4 in. diam. ; Fruit a fibrous drupe,
full size in 4 years, mature in 7-10, seed i^ ft. long; fruit 40 lb, weight, in clusters
of 4-1 I : endosperm \ in. deep, solid.

Cocos nucifera, Coconut, Polynesia, cult. ; Stem smooth, annulate, to 80 ft.,
leaves pinnate, 6-12 ft., leaflets 2-3 ft., monoecious, with stout spadix (4-6 ft.) with
drooping branches; staminate flowers numerous in upper branches, 10 mm., 3 outer
per. seg. large and coriaceous, stamens 3 -I- 3 : carpellary flowers few, at base of
spadix-branches, i in., with massive perianth-segs. and ovary syncarpous, 3-locular.
Fruit a large 3-angled fibrous drupe (i ft.): sclerocarp with 3 basal pores to ovary-
loculi, ' eyes ', one non-sclerosed. Seed 5 in. long, ovoid ; endosperm white, storing
fat, \ in. deep (co})ra), cavity of seed subserving flotation, embryo imbedded oppo-
site soft 'eye', conoidal, \ in. : fruits take a year to mature; a tree produces 50-100
nuts a \ oar.

Elaeis guineensis, Oil Palm of Trop. Africa, cult, in Tropics in vars., to
100 ft., with j)innaio foliage and stem clothed with spinous leaf-bases; more or less
dioecious ; staminate inflorescence an aggregate of cylindrical spikes, flower with
6 stamens on a 'column'; carpellary system of cone-like sjiiral aggregates, giving
clusters of fruits the size of a walnut, with oil in sarcocarp ; sclerocarp with 3 ' eyes',
one functional, 10 mm. ; seed with white fatty endosperm.

Calamus tenuis, Canes, of Sub-Himalya, in damp forest, stems slender, 5 mm.,
forming caiie-l)iakes, leaves pinnate, 1-2 ft., wiih thorny flagellum of modified
leaflets and inflorescence bracts; monoecious, staminate flowers small, in spikelels;
carpellary flower with scales in symmetrical pattern (suggestive of phyllotaxis) on
massive ovary with plumose stigmas. In fruit (^ in.) the scales clothe the outer
straw-coloured surface imbricating downwards; seed i, with horny endosperm.

C. Rotang of S. India, very similar ; other sp. (200) may be powerful climbers,
100-400 ft., with characteristic habit, leaf-rachis ' lora ', and similar flowers and
fruit. Cf. large brown jiolished sralyfruits of Raphia Rujfta (Sago Palm of Y.. Africa),
2-| in., borne on distichous r.imiili.

Caryota urens, Mhar Palm, in evergreen forest of W. Ghats, and Mill forests

46

of E.. lo 50 ft., with bipinnate fiondose leaves, to 20 ft. by 10, with cuneate segments,
monocarpic : terminal inflorescence, 10-12 ft., flowers first, and laterals in sequence
to extreme base of stem, with Ion<; and slender tassel-ramuli. Flowers in triads,
carpellary T and staminate T' ; tlie latter with numerous stamens (40-45); tar-
pellary flower sub-<;Iobose, ovary 3-locular. Fruit globose, -J in., with i (2) seeds,
endosperm haul and ruminated.

Areca Catechu, Betel-Nut Palm, cult.; to 100 It., with smooth annulate
stem, 6-9 in. diam.; leaves pinnate, 4-6 ft. Inflorescence below the leaves, monoe-
cious, branched ; staminate flowers at end of ramuli, small, normal ; carpellary
flowers at base of ramuli ; ovary syncarpous, unilocular, with 3 stigmas, and i basal
erect ovule. Fruit a fibrous scarlet drupe, 2 in. long. Seeds i in., sub-globular,
with beautifully ruminated endosperm, thick cellulose walls and fat-storage.

Arenga sacchifera, Malay Sago-Palm, cult.; Monocarpic: stem 24-40 ft.,
densely clothed with fibrous remains of leaf-bases, leaves 20-28 ft., pinnate, in dense
crown. Inflorescence much branched, 6-10 ft., with pendulous laterals; lateral
systems function basipetally, flowers commonly in triads with carpellary T. Stami-
nate flowers I in. long, with numerous stamens; carpellary flower i in. diam.. ovary
3-locular; Fruit 2 in., seeds 2-3, compressed, endosperm simple. Starch-storage in
main axis (sago), spadix tapped for sugar (toddy).

Nipa fruticans, estuarine and halophytic in all Trop. Asia, giving A''ipa-zor\t
on mud-banks of tidal estuaries. Stem a branched, creeping, rhizome, rooting
below, with crowns of pinnate fronds, 15-30 ft.; leaflets coriaceous, 2-4 ft. : Flowers
monoecious, in packed spicate systems. Staminate flowers in cylindrical spikes,
perianth segs, 34-3, stamens 3 on a column: carpellary flowers on a globose head,
3 carpels distinct, i -seeded. In fruit the whole enlarges to a globose aggregate,
I ft. diam.. of angular drupes, with surface-facets, sclerocarp fibrous-fleshy; the seeds
2-3 in., with horny endosperm and central cavity.

Cf. Phytelephas of Trop. Amer., Vegetable-Ivory, for very parallel ecological
type.

II. Pandanaceae (2 '220) including comparable phases of extreme reduction-
specialization, as arboreal forms with monaxial or branched habit, climbing or
rhizomatous, of estuarine and tidal swamp-forest, with stilt-roots, leaves coriaceous,
linear, in 3 ' spires ' (Screw-Pines). Commonly regarded (since apocarpous and
destitute of perianth as extremely archaic, and placed on a level with indigenous
Sparganuwi and 7)'/)/w (Engler, 1886) ; more probably convergent only in adaptation
to swamp-habit.)

Pandanus tectorius (= odora//ss/mus), of coast-forest, gregarious, as a zone
above high-water, and much cult.; Stems to 25 ft. on strong stilt-roots; leaves
3-5 ft. spinous on edges ; dioecious ; inflorescence terminal or axillary ; staminate
with pendulous ramuli and flowers clustered, without perianth, of numerous stamens
on a ' column ', in axils of white, fragrant, sheathing bracts. Carpellary flower of
4-12 closely aggregated carpels, each with i ovule. In fruit the entire system fuses
to a massive drooping ' syncarpium ' of scarlet drupes, each several-seeded within
a common sclerocarp.

47

Anofiosp : Monocot : riramineae. XVI.

GRAMINEAE (314/4000). a great series of anemophiloiis Monocots. of
.spccializcil liabit, ossciUially ihizomatous, convergent with Palms in arboreal examples
(Bambuseae), but more characlcrisiically reduced to herbaceous habit and prairie- land
formation. The essential departure of the grass-type centres in loss of the erect main
(prim.irv) axis, and substitution of a perennial shoot-system at the ground-level, or
below, sending up erect slender shoots (culms) of seasonal habit, with greatly extended
internodes and distichous leaf-arrangement, with telescopic growth-effect. Rarely
monaxial (by culture) Zea, or annual (cult, cereals). The leaves are simple, with
sheathing base, ligular vestige of primary apex, and secondary linear lamina-extension
with parallel venation. The inflorescence is freely panicled, with many grades of
reduction-specialization ; the flowers on ultimate ramuli reduce their perianth-
segmenls in correlation with aggregation to special 'spikelet' inflorescence-units, of
distichous construction, in which the subtending bract (lower pale) and 2-keeled
posterior prophyll (upper pale) acquire a special protective value, and the limiting
coniact-cycle of 2 ' sterile glumes ' constitutes an additional involucre to the system.
In the limit the flowers of a spikelet may reduce lo i only. The general scheme attained
is remarkably uniform ; herbaceous types of the N. Temp, express limiting cases of
reduction-specialization in connexion wiih xeiophytic prairie-conditions and adapta-
tion to a short season.

As extreme examples of divergent lines in tropical regions, cf. : —

I. Bambusa, Bamboo, 50, with associated genera (13) distinguished by special
details of llower and fruit. The typical primary giass of tropical forest- formation,
arboreal and gregarious, as nearer the prototype of the family. Woody culms
to 100 ft. are shot up in a month of the wet season, with branching heads of distichous
foliage and branching panicles of flowers ; the latter hermaphrodite, with full spikelets,
normal glumes and pales, vestigial perianth of 3 segments, 6 stamens (3 + 3), and
ovary with 3 free stigmatic plumes, unilocular with one anatropous ovule on the
posterior side (against rachis). The fruit is a dry caryopsis with endosperm storing
starch, and is shed as ' free ' grain.

II. Zea Mais, expressing an advanced type of cereal, as a special limiting case
of tropical cultivation, is an aruficial strain of Euchlacna mexicana. Now monaxial,
monocarpic, annual, diclinous; to 12-15 ft., the vegetative branching of ^7^r/i/(7^«a
superseded : staminate flowers in a branched terminal distichous panicle, the spikelets
2-flowered and in pairs (T and T''), stamens 3, with normal glumes and pales.
Carpellary flowers in lateral systems, reduced to massive axis with high whorled
phyllotaxis (4-8). spikelets paired and 2-flowered, but one merely a rudiment ; ovary
with large ovule and single style-filament, to 6 in. long (collecting ' silks ' of young
'cob'). Fruit as naked grain, not detached, growth of pales and formerly protective
glume suppressed ; seed large, confluent with ovary-wall ; endosperm solid with packed
starch : cult, in many vars.

III. Saccharum oflacinarum, Sugar-cane, cult, in Tropics to S. Europe ;
6-12 ft. high and 2 in. diam. ; herbaceous type of seasonal savannah. Stem annulate,
with short internodes (3-6 in.); panicle terminal, 1-2 ft., pyramidal, plumose, multi-
branched ; spikelets on end-ramuli paired (sessile and stalked, T and T'), i -flowered,
no awns but the glumes densely hairy ; stamens 3, stigmas 2, lodicules functional :
seed enclosed in pales, spikelet abstricted, and dispersal by aid of tufted glumes. A non-
flowering var. cult.

IV. Oryza sativa, Rice, Swamp-type, of E. Asia, the oldest food-grain, cult, in
vars. : a much reducetl form, 2-3 ft., with small panicle, 6 in., spikelets reduced to
I flower, glumes small, pale awned (or not), stamens 3-I-3, stigmas 2, lodicules
present. Spikelet detached in fruit, with seed enclosed in folded bristly pale (8 mm.)
with awn, 8 mm. Endosperm solid with packed starch.

As Indian Bamboos, cf : —

48

Bambusa Tulda, common Bamlioo of N. hulia on alluvial flats by streams,
gregarious, cult., flowering casually ; culms densely tufted, 20-70 ft., internodes
1-2 ft., and 2-4 in. diam. ; sheaths 6-9 in. long, investing and guiding the young
growth : foliage-lamina 6-10 in. by i. Flowering-culms leafless, producing an
Immense muUibranched panicle ; spikelets clustered, 1-.3 in. long, with 4-6 fertile
flowers ; stamens ^ + i, anthers exserted, purple, stigmas 3 ; fruit (caryopsis) 8 mm.
long, grooved on one side, shed ' clean ' from pales.

" B. arundinacea. Thorny Bamboo of Cent. India, cult., gregarious in moist
deciduous forest, and by streams, monocarpic : culms 50-120 ft., internodes
1 2-18 in., and 6-7 diam., walls thick (1-2 in.) ; leaves small and thin (8 in.). Large
leafy branches bending over, and branchlets widi sharp spines at nodes, entangled :
spikelets sessile, i in., 6 stamens and 3 long plumose stigmas. Culms flower out
gregariously.

B. polymorpha of damp deciduous forest, and gregarious with Teak in Burma ;
tufted culms 60-80 ft., internodes 12-30 in. and 3-6 diam. with relatively thin walls.
Tops branched, gracefully bent, with branches in ' half-whorls ' : foliage-leaves
4-6 in., spikelets sessile, clustered, -I in. ; Fertile flowers 3, with several empty glumes.
RIonocarpic, flowering out gregariously at long intervals (60 years).

Dendrocalamus strictus, ' Male Bamboo ', commonest and hardiest of Indian
sp., in dry deciduous forest, with Teak (Myinwa). Culms 20-50 ft. high, and 2-3 in.
diam., or i in. and solid in dry regions : leaves 4-10 in., linear : Inflorescence a distinct
xeromorphic type; spikelets hairy in globose stellate heads, i in. diam., with hard-
tipped glumes, ' empty ' glumes, numerous and assisting protection, fertile flowers 2-3 :
stamens 3-1-3, no lodicules, and i hairy elongated stigma. Caryopsis enclosed in
hard pale-sheath ; flowering casually or gregariously.

D. Hamiltoni, culms to 80 ft. and 6-7 in diam., arcuate in dense thickets,
Burma, and cult., flowering sporadically ; flower capitula semi-globose, i^ in. Con-
spicuous eye-like marks on lower nodes from suppressed buds.

D. giganteus, of Burma. Wabo, the largest stem ; densely tufted, culms to
100 ft. and 8-12 in. diam., wall ^ in. thick. Spikelets ^ in., 2-5 in aggregate, on long
spikes, spaced about ^ in.

Cephalostachyum pergracile, Tinwa, commonest Bamboo of Burma : tufted
culms 30-40 ft., 2-3 in. diam., leaves 6-14 in.; flowering gregariously ; Inflorescence
of small globose heads, spaced at 2-3 in. on wiry raniuli of a large leafless panicle :
spikelets with many empty glumes and few fruits.

Melocanna bambusioides the most aberrant form, gregarious, Arakan : Culms
distant, from vigorous rhizome extending laterally, 40-70 ft. high, 1-3 in. diam., bare
below ; panicle 3 ft. and spikelets fascicled at the nodes, more or less diclinous,
stamens 3 -I- 3. Monocarpic, flowering out at intervals of 30 years or so, for hundreds
of sq. miles ; the characteristic fruit increases to the size of an inverted pear, 3-4 in., with
long pointed beak ; the massive wall stores starch, without special protective mechanism
or vitality, the single large seed, ^ in., has no endosperm, but a massive scutellum to
the small ' embryo '-region. On germination the scutellum digests directly from the
ovary -wall.

GYMNOSPERMS : I. Coniferae — Pinoids, restricted to representative
species of N. Temp, genera in Himalya and Hill-forest.

Pinus exeelsa, Blue Himalyan Pine, gregarious at 6-12,000 ft., to 100-150 ft.
high, cones 6-12 in., in groups of 2-5, with soft scales and terminal umbo of
F. Sirobiis type ; cones ripened in second season. Five-needled.

P. longifolia, Chir, gregarious in outer Himalya at 1,500-3,000 ft. ; cones large
and massive, 6-8 in., with hooked apophyses, ripened in second season : leaves
slender and pendulous, to 18 in. Three-needled.

Also cf. P. Khasya, gregarious in Burma, cones 2-3 in.; P. Gerardiana of N\V.

49 D

Ilimalya, 3-neccllecl, cones massive. 6-9 in., seed-wing inefficient ; P. Mcrkusii,
Burma, to 100 ft. and 5 ft. diani.. cones 2-3 in., iwo-needled, associated with Eng
and Pcntacmc, as sliowing possibilities of the genus.

Cedrus Deodara. gregarious in W. Himalya, at 4-10,000 ft. in damp forests on
outer ranges, to 240 fi. and 10 ft. tliam. ; end-branches drooping, flexuous ; foliage
dark-gieen, needles i in., on tufted sjjuis; cones woody, 4-^5 in. ; flowering in Sept.
Oct., and ripening cones in 12-13 months.

Abies Pindrow, a tall tree, 200-250 ft., feathered to base, of low-level forests of
W. Ilimalya; branches drooping, needles 2-3 in.; cones 4-7 in. erected, violet-
black, without projecting bract-scales.

Picea Morinda, a tall tree of NW. Ilimalya, 100-200 ft., with peculiar pendu-
lous ramuli, 1-3 ft., needles i-i^ in.; cones large, cylindrical, 6-8 in., pendulous,
broad brown scales with thin rounded margin.

Tsuga Brunoniana, to 1 20 ft. and 9 ft. diam., gregarious Central and E. Himalya ;
leaves ^-1 in., pectinated, cones ^ in.

Larix Griffithii, E. Himalya, at 2 miles elevation, deciduous, branches long and
pendulous, foliage pale-green, cones 2-3 in. long with reflexed bract-scale.

Cupressus torulosa, semigregarious in outer ranges of NW. Himalya, a large
tree with horizontal branches ; cones \ in., ripened in second season.

Juniperus macropoda, gregarious on dry ranges, a small tree, 50-80 ft., with
dimorphic foliage ; berries blue-black, ^ in., resinous, taken by birds.

II. Coniferae — Taxoids : the only Conifer in the W. peninsula is Podocarpus
latifolia, Hills of S. India, a large tree with fine leaves, 4-7 in. by 1-2 in., pectinated
in 2 rows, and appearing opposite, with effect of pinnate foliage : seed -I in. globular,
purple, succulent, erected on elongated succulent a.xis (i in.).

Taxua baccata, in shady ravines of Himalya, at 2 miles elevation, and Hills of
Burma, shows range of this ancient type.

III. Cycadaceae, with monaxial palm-habit, and crown of pinnate foliage- leaves.
Cycas-\.y[)t alone represented, 5 sp.

Cycas circinalis moist forests of S. India, 15-40 ft., and 100 yrs. ; stem with
leaf-scars, foliage-leaves 5-9 ft., pinnules flat. Staminate cone 1-2 fl. ; Carpels on the
main axis, to i ft. long, with 6-12 ovules. Seeds i in., yellow-red sarcotesla; endo-
sperm storing starch.

C. revoluta of Japan, commonly cult., stem 6 ft. with old leaf-bases, leaves
pinnate, 2-6 ft., margins revolute ; carpels 4-9 in. long, with 4-6 ovules : cf. C.
siamensis in Eng forest, caipels with 2 basal ovules. C. Rumphii of beach-forest.
Coco islands, may give 50 ft. shaft and 18 in. diam., seeds 2-3 in. long. Interest
botanical rather than silvicultural.

While the Cycads with the specialized monaxial habit of Tree-Ferns and Palms
can never have been the precursors of modern Angiospermous trees, special interest
attaches to Gnetales ; less to Ephedra with reduced foliage and photosynthetic
ramuli than to Gtutum, species of which still remain in the form of lianoid types in
the original station of Tropical forest : cf. —

Gnetum scandens, an immense evergreen climber of Hill-forest of S. India and
Burma, trunk 9-12 in. broad, flattened, with anomalous vascular structure ; leaves
decussate, broad, net-veined; flowers, dioecious, whorled, in clustered catkin-like
systems, 2 in.: Seed, i in., drupe-like with edible orange-coloured ' sarcotesta '.

50

DATE DUE